AIM

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7-3-7. Helicopters In a slow hover taxi or stationary hover near the surface, helicopter main rotor(s) generate downwash producing high velocity outwash vortices to a distance approximately three times the diameter of the rotor. When rotor downwash hits the surface, the resulting outwash vortices have behavioral character- istics similar to wing tip vortices produced by fixed wing aircraft. However, the vortex circulation is outward, upward, around, and away from the main rotor(s) in all directions. Pilots of small aircraft should avoid operating within three rotor diameters of any helicopter in a slow hover taxi or stationary hover. In forward flight, departing or landing helicopters produce a pair of strong, high-speed trailing vortices similar to wing tip vortices of larger fixed wing aircraft. Pilots of small aircraft should use caution when operating behind or crossing behind landing and departing helicopters.

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7-3-8. Pilot Responsibility a. Government and industry groups are making concerted efforts to minimize or eliminate the hazards of trailing vortices. However, the flight disciplines necessary to ensure vortex avoidance during VFR operations must be exercised by the pilot. Vortex visualization and avoidance procedures should be exercised by the pilot using the same degree of concern as in collision avoidance. b. Wake turbulence may be encountered by aircraft in flight as well as when operating on the airport movement area. REFERENCE- Pilot/Controller Glossary Term- Wake Turbulence. c. Pilots are reminded that in operations conducted behind all aircraft, acceptance of instructions from ATC in the following situations is an acknowledg- ment that the pilot will ensure safe takeoff and landing intervals and accepts the responsibility for providing wake turbulence separation.

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1. Traffic information. 2. Instructions to follow an aircraft; and 3. The acceptance of a visual approach clearance. d. For operations conducted behind heavy air- craft, ATC will specify the word “heavy” when this information is known. Pilots of heavy aircraft should always use the word “heavy” in radio communica- tions. e. Heavy and large jet aircraft operators should use the following procedures during an approach to landing. These procedures establish a dependable baseline from which pilots of in-trail, lighter aircraft may reasonably expect to make effective flight path adjustments to avoid serious wake vortex turbulence. 1. Pilots of aircraft that produce strong wake vortices should make every attempt to fly on the established glidepath, not above it; or, if glidepath guidance is not available, to fly as closely as possible to a “3-1” glidepath, not above it. EXAMPLE- Fly 3,000 feet at 10 miles from touchdown, 1,500 feet at 5 miles, 1,200 feet at 4 miles, and so on to touchdown. AIM 2/14/08 7-3-7 Wake Turbulence 2. Pilots of aircraft that produce strong wake vortices should fly as closely as possible to the approach course centerline or to the extended centerline of the runway of intended landing as appropriate to conditions. f. Pilots operating lighter aircraft on visual approaches in-trail to aircraft producing strong wake vortices should use the following procedures to assist in avoiding wake turbulence. These procedures apply only to those aircraft that are on visual approaches. 1. Pilots of lighter aircraft should fly on or above_the glidepath. Glidepath reference may be furnished by an ILS, by a visual approach slope system, by other ground-based approach slope guidance systems, or by other means. In the absence of visible glidepath guidance, pilots may very nearly duplicate a 3-degree glideslope by adhering to the “3_to 1” glidepath principle. EXAMPLE- Fly 3,000 feet at 10 miles from touchdown, 1,500 feet at 5_miles, 1,200 feet at 4 miles, and so on to touchdown. 2. If the pilot of the lighter following aircraft has visual contact with the preceding heavier aircraft and also with the runway, the pilot may further adjust for possible wake vortex turbulence by the following practices: (a) Pick a point of landing no less than 1,000_feet from the arrival end of the runway. (b) Establish a line-of-sight to that landing point that is above and in front of the heavier preceding aircraft. (c) When possible, note the point of landing of the heavier preceding aircraft and adjust point of intended landing as necessary. EXAMPLE- A puff of smoke may appear at the 1,000-foot markings of the runway, showing that touchdown was that point; therefore, adjust point of intended landing to the 1,500-foot markings. (d) Maintain the line-of-sight to the point of intended landing above and ahead of the heavier preceding aircraft; maintain it to touchdown. (e) Land beyond the point of landing of the preceding heavier aircraft. 3. During visual approaches pilots may ask ATC for updates on separation and groundspeed with respect to heavier preceding aircraft, especially when there is any question of safe separation from wake turbulence. 7-3-9. Air Traffic Wake Turbulence Separations a. Because of the possible effects of wake turbulence, controllers are required to apply no less than specified minimum separation for aircraft operating behind a heavy jet and, in certain instances, behind large nonheavy aircraft (i.e., B757 aircraft). 1. Separation is applied to aircraft operating directly behind a heavy/B757 jet at the same altitude or less than 1,000 feet below: (a) Heavy jet behind heavy jet-4 miles. (b) Large/heavy behind B757 - 4 miles. (c) Small behind B757 - 5 miles. (d) Small/large aircraft behind heavy jet - 5_miles. 2. Also, separation, measured at the time the preceding aircraft is over the landing threshold, is provided to small aircraft: (a) Small aircraft landing behind heavy jet - 6 miles. (b) Small aircraft landing behind B757 - 5 miles. (c) Small aircraft landing behind large aircraft- 4 miles. REFERENCE- Pilot/Controller Glossary Term- Aircraft Classes. 3. Additionally, appropriate time or distance intervals are provided to departing aircraft: (a) Two minutes or the appropriate 4 or 5 mile radar separation when takeoff behind a heavy/B757 jet will be: (1) From the same threshold. (2) On a crossing runway and projected flight paths will cross. (3) From the threshold of a parallel runway when staggered ahead of that of the adjacent runway by less than 500 feet and when the runways are separated by less than 2,500 feet. NOTE- Controllers may not reduce or waive these intervals. AIM 2/14/08 7-3-8 Wake Turbulence b. A 3-minute interval will be provided when a small aircraft will takeoff: 1. From an intersection on the same runway (same or opposite direction) behind a departing large aircraft, 2. In the opposite direction on the same runway behind a large aircraft takeoff or low/missed approach. NOTE- This 3-minute interval may be waived upon specific pilot request. c. A 3-minute interval will be provided for all aircraft taking off when the operations are as described in subparagraph b1 and 2 above, the preceding aircraft is a heavy/B757 jet, and the operations are on either the same runway or parallel runways separated by less than 2,500 feet. Controllers may not reduce or waive this interval. d. Pilots may request additional separation i.e., 2_minutes instead of 4 or 5 miles for wake turbulence avoidance. This request should be made as soon as practical on ground control and at least before taxiing onto the runway. NOTE14 CFR Section 91.3(a) states: “The pilot-in-command of an aircraft is directly responsible for and is the final authority as to the operation of that aircraft.” e. Controllers may anticipate separation and need not withhold a takeoff clearance for an aircraft departing behind a large/heavy aircraft if there is reasonable assurance the required separation will exist when the departing aircraft starts takeoff roll. AIM 2/14/08 7-4-1 Bird Hazards and Flight Over National Refuges, Parks, and Forests Section 4. Bird Hazards and Flight Over National Refuges, Parks, and Forests 7-4-1. Migratory Bird Activity a. Bird strike risk increases because of bird migration during the months of March through April, and August through November. b. The altitudes of migrating birds vary with winds aloft, weather fronts, terrain elevations, cloud conditions, and other environmental variables. While over 90 percent of the reported bird strikes occur at or below 3,000 feet AGL, strikes at higher altitudes are common during migration. Ducks and geese are frequently observed up to 7,000 feet AGL and pilots are cautioned to minimize en route flying at lower altitudes during migration. c. Considered the greatest potential hazard to aircraft because of their size, abundance, or habit of flying in dense flocks are gulls, waterfowl, vultures, hawks, owls, egrets, blackbirds, and starlings. Four_major migratory flyways exist in the U.S. The Atlantic flyway parallels the Atlantic Coast. The Mississippi Flyway stretches from Canada through the Great Lakes and follows the Mississippi River. The Central Flyway represents a broad area east of the Rockies, stretching from Canada through Central America. The Pacific Flyway follows the west coast and overflies major parts of Washington, Oregon, and California. There are also numerous smaller flyways which cross these major north-south migratory routes. 7-4-2. Reducing Bird Strike Risks a. The most serious strikes are those involving ingestion into an engine (turboprops and turbine jet engines) or windshield strikes. These strikes can result in emergency situations requiring prompt action by the pilot. b. Engine ingestions may result in sudden loss of power or engine failure. Review engine out procedures, especially when operating from airports with known bird hazards or when operating near high bird concentrations. c. Windshield strikes have resulted in pilots experiencing confusion, disorientation, loss of communications, and aircraft control problems. Pilots are encouraged to review their emergency procedures before flying in these areas. d. When encountering birds en route, climb to avoid collision, because birds in flocks generally distribute themselves downward, with lead birds being at the highest altitude. e. Avoid overflight of known areas of bird concentration and flying at low altitudes during bird migration. Charted wildlife refuges and other natural areas contain unusually high local concentration of birds which may create a hazard to aircraft. 7-4-3. Reporting Bird Strikes Pilots are urged to report any bird or other wildlife strike using FAA Form 5200-7, Bird/Other Wildlife Strike Report (Appendix 1). Additional forms are available at any FSS; at any FAA Regional Office or at http://wildlife-mitigation.tc.faa.gov. The data derived from these reports are used to develop standards to cope with this potential hazard to aircraft and for documentation of necessary habitat control on airports. 7-4-4. Reporting Bird and Other Wildlife Activities If you observe birds or other animals on or near the runway, request airport management to disperse the wildlife before taking off. Also contact the nearest FAA ARTCC, FSS, or tower (including non-Federal towers) regarding large flocks of birds and report the: a. Geographic location. b. Bird type (geese, ducks, gulls, etc.). c. Approximate numbers. d. Altitude. e. Direction of bird flight path. AIM 2/14/08 7-4-2 Bird Hazards and Flight Over National Refuges, Parks, and Forests 7-4-5. Pilot Advisories on Bird and Other Wildlife Hazards Many airports advise pilots of other wildlife hazards caused by large animals on the runway through the A/FD and the NOTAM system. Collisions of landing and departing aircraft and animals on the runway are increasing and are not limited to rural airports. These accidents have also occurred at several major airports. Pilots should exercise extreme caution when warned of the presence of wildlife on and in the vicinity of airports. If you observe deer or other large animals in close proximity to movement areas, advise the FSS, tower, or airport management. 7-4-6. Flights Over Charted U.S. Wildlife Refuges, Parks, and Forest Service Areas a. The landing of aircraft is prohibited on lands or waters administered by the National Park Service, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, or U.S. Forest Service without authorization from the respective agency. Exceptions include: 1. When forced to land due to an emergency beyond the control of the operator; 2. At officially designated landing sites; or 3. An approved official business of the Federal Government. b. Pilots are requested to maintain a minimum altitude of 2,000 feet above the surface of the following: National Parks, Monuments, Seashores, Lakeshores, Recreation Areas and Scenic Riverways administered by the National Park Service, National Wildlife Refuges, Big Game Refuges, Game Ranges and Wildlife Ranges administered by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, and Wilderness and Primitive areas administered by the U.S. Forest Service. NOTE- FAA Advisory Circular AC 91-36, Visual Flight Rules_(VFR) Flight Near Noise-Sensitive Areas, defines the surface of a national park area (including parks, forests, primitive areas, wilderness areas, recreational areas, national seashores, national monuments, national lakeshores, and national wildlife refuge and range areas) as: the highest terrain within 2,000 feet laterally of the route of flight, or the upper-most rim of a canyon or valley. c. Federal statutes prohibit certain types of flight activity and/or provide altitude restrictions over designated U.S. Wildlife Refuges, Parks, and Forest Service Areas. These designated areas, for example: Boundary Waters Canoe Wilderness Areas, Minnesota; Haleakala National Park, Hawaii; Yosemite National Park, California; and Grand Canyon National Park, Arizona, are charted on Sectional Charts. d. Federal regulations also prohibit airdrops by parachute or other means of persons, cargo, or objects from aircraft on lands administered by the three agencies without authorization from the respective agency. Exceptions include: 1. Emergencies involving the safety of human life; or 2. Threat of serious property loss. AIM 2/14/08 7-5-1 Potential Flight Hazards Section 5. Potential Flight Hazards 7-5-1. Accident Cause Factors a. The 10 most frequent cause factors for general aviation accidents that involve the pilot-in-command are: 1. Inadequate preflight preparation and/or planning. 2. Failure to obtain and/or maintain flying speed. 3. Failure to maintain direction control. 4. Improper level off. 5. Failure to see and avoid objects or obstructions. 6. Mismanagement of fuel. 7. Improper inflight decisions or planning. 8. Misjudgment of distance and speed. 9. Selection of unsuitable terrain. 10. Improper operation of flight controls. b. This list remains relatively stable and points out the need for continued refresher training to establish a higher level of flight proficiency for all pilots. A part of the FAA's continuing effort to promote increased aviation safety is the Aviation Safety Program. For information on Aviation Safety Program activities contact your nearest Flight Standards District Office. c. Alertness. Be alert at all times, especially when the weather is good. Most pilots pay attention to business when they are operating in full IFR weather conditions, but strangely, air collisions almost invariably have occurred under ideal weather conditions. Unlimited visibility appears to encourage a sense of security which is not at all justified. Considerable information of value may be obtained by listening to advisories being issued in the terminal area, even though controller workload may prevent a pilot from obtaining individual service. d. Giving Way. If you think another aircraft is too close to you, give way instead of waiting for the other pilot to respect the right-of-way to which you may be entitled. It is a lot safer to pursue the right-of-way angle after you have completed your flight. 7-5-2. VFR in Congested Areas A high percentage of near midair collisions occur below 8,000 feet AGL and within 30 miles of an airport. When operating VFR in these highly congested areas, whether you intend to land at an airport within the area or are just flying through, it is recommended that extra vigilance be maintained and that you monitor an appropriate control frequency. Normally the appropriate frequency is an approach control frequency. By such monitoring action you can “get the picture” of the traffic in your area. When the approach controller has radar, radar traffic advisories may be given to VFR pilots upon request. REFERENCE- AIM, Paragraph 4-1-14, Radar Traffic Information Service. 7-5-3. Obstructions To Flight a. General. Many structures exist that could significantly affect the safety of your flight when operating below 500_feet AGL, and particularly below 200 feet AGL. While 14_CFR Part 91.119 allows flight below 500_AGL when over sparsely populated areas or open water, such operations are very dangerous. At and below 200 feet AGL there are numerous power lines, antenna towers, etc., that are not marked and lighted as obstructions and; therefore, may not be seen in time to avoid a collision. Notices to Airmen (NOTAMs) are issued on those lighted structures experiencing temporary light outages. However, some time may pass before the FAA is notified of these outages, and the NOTAM issued, thus pilot vigilance is imperative. b. Antenna Towers. Extreme caution should be exercised when flying less than 2,000 feet AGL because of numerous skeletal structures, such as radio and television antenna towers, that exceed 1,000 feet AGL with some extending higher than 2,000 feet AGL. Most skeletal structures are supported by guy wires which are very difficult to see in good weather and can be invisible at dusk or during periods of reduced visibility. These wires can extend about 1,500 feet horizontally from a structure; therefore, all skeletal structures should be avoided horizontally by AIM 2/14/7-5-2 Potential Flight Hazards at least 2,000 feet. Additionally, new towers may not be on your current chart because the information was not received prior to the printing of the chart. c. Overhead Wires. Overhead transmission and utility lines often span approaches to runways, natural flyways such as lakes, rivers, gorges, and canyons, and cross other landmarks pilots frequently follow such as highways, railroad tracks, etc. As with antenna towers, these high voltage/power lines or the supporting structures of these lines may not always be readily visible and the wires may be virtually impossible to see under certain conditions. In some locations, the supporting structures of overhead transmission lines are equipped with unique sequence flashing white strobe light systems to indicate that there are wires between the structures. However, many power lines do not require notice to the FAA and, therefore, are not marked and/or lighted. Many of those that do require notice do not exceed 200 feet AGL or meet the Obstruction Standard of 14 CFR Part 77 and, therefore, are not marked and/or lighted. All pilots are cautioned to remain extremely vigilant for these power lines or their supporting structures when following natural flyways or during the approach and landing phase. This is particularly important for seaplane and/or float equipped aircraft when landing on, or departing from, unfamiliar lakes or rivers. d. Other Objects/Structures. There are other objects or structures that could adversely affect your flight such as construction cranes near an airport, newly constructed buildings, new towers, etc. Many of these structures do not meet charting requirements or may not yet be charted because of the charting cycle. Some structures do not require obstruction marking and/or lighting and some may not be marked and lighted even though the FAA recommended it. 7-5-4. Avoid Flight Beneath Unmanned Balloons a. The majority of unmanned free balloons currently being operated have, extending below them, either a suspension device to which the payload or instrument package is attached, or a trailing wire antenna, or both. In many instances these balloon subsystems may be invisible to the pilot until the aircraft is close to the balloon, thereby creating a potentially dangerous situation. Therefore, good judgment on the part of the pilot dictates that aircraft should remain well clear of all unmanned free balloons and flight below them should be avoided at all times. b. Pilots are urged to report any unmanned free balloons sighted to the nearest FAA ground facility with which communication is established. Such information will assist FAA ATC facilities to identify and flight follow unmanned free balloons operating in the airspace. 7-5-5. Unmanned Aircraft Systems a. Unmanned Aircraft Systems (UAS), formerly referred to as “Unmanned Aerial Vehicles” (UAVs) or “drones,” are having an increasing operational presence in the NAS. Once the exclusive domain of the military, UAS are now being operated by various entities. Although these aircraft are “unmanned,” UAS are flown by a remotely located pilot and crew. Physical and performance characteristics of unmanned aircraft (UA) vary greatly and unlike model aircraft that typically operate lower than 400 feet AGL, UA may be found operating at virtually any altitude and any speed. Sizes of UA can be as small as several pounds to as large as a commercial transport aircraft. UAS come in various categories including airplane, rotorcraft, powered-lift (tilt- rotor), and lighter-than-air. Propulsion systems of UAS include a broad range of alternatives from piston powered and turbojet engines to battery and solar-powered electric motors. b. To ensure segregation of UAS operations from other aircraft, the military typically conducts UAS operations within restricted or other special use airspace. However, UAS operations are now being approved in the NAS outside of special use airspace through the use of FAA-issued Certificates of Waiver or Authorization (COA) or through the issuance of a special airworthiness certificate. COA and special airworthiness approvals authorize UAS flight operations to be contained within specific geographic boundaries and altitudes, usually require coordination with an ATC facility, and typically require the issuance of a NOTAM describing the operation to be conducted. UAS approvals also require observers to provide “see-and-avoid” capability to the UAS crew and to provide the necessary compliance with 14 CFR Section 91.113. For UAS operations approved at or above FL180, UAS operate under the same requirements as that of manned aircraft (i.e., flights 3/15/07 7110.65R CHG 2 AIM 7/31/08 AIM 2/14/08 7-5-3 Potential Flight Hazards are operated under instrument flight rules, are in communication with ATC, and are appropriately equipped). c. UAS operations may be approved at either controlled or uncontrolled airports and are typically disseminated by NOTAM. In all cases, approved UAS operations shall comply with all applicable regulations and/or special provisions specified in the COA or in the operating limitations of the special airworthiness certificate. At uncontrolled airports, UAS operations are advised to operate well clear of all known manned aircraft operations. Pilots of manned aircraft are advised to follow normal operating procedures and are urged to monitor the CTAF for any potential UAS activity. At controlled airports, local ATC procedures may be in place to handle UAS operations and should not require any special procedures from manned aircraft entering or departing the traffic pattern or operating in the vicinity of the airport. d. In addition to approved UAS operations described above, a recently approved agreement between the FAA and the Department of Defense authorizes small UAS operations wholly contained within Class G airspace, and in no instance, greater than 1200 feet AGL over military owned or leased property. These operations do not require any special authorization as long as the UA remains within the lateral boundaries of the military installation as well as other provisions including the issuance of a NOTAM. Unlike special use airspace, these areas may not be depicted on an aeronautical chart. e. There are several factors a pilot should consider regarding UAS activity in an effort to reduce potential flight hazards. Pilots are urged to exercise increased vigilance when operating in the vicinity of restricted or other special use airspace, military operations areas, and any military installation. Areas with a preponderance of UAS activity are typically noted on sectional charts advising pilots of this activity. Since the size of a UA can be very small, they may be difficult to see and track. If a UA is encountered during flight, as with manned aircraft, never assume that the pilot or crew of the UAS can see you, maintain increased vigilance with the UA and always be prepared for evasive action if necessary. Always check NOTAMs for potential UAS activity along the intended route of flight and exercise increased vigilance in areas specified in the NOTAM. 7-5-6. Mountain Flying a. Your first experience of flying over mountainous terrain (particularly if most of your flight time has been over the flatlands of the midwest) could be a never-to-be-forgotten nightmare if proper planning is not done and if you are not aware of the potential hazards awaiting. Those familiar section lines are not present in the mountains; those flat, level fields for forced landings are practically nonexistent; abrupt changes in wind direction and velocity occur; severe updrafts and downdrafts are common, particularly near or above abrupt changes of terrain such as cliffs or rugged areas; even the clouds look different and can build up with startling rapidity. Mountain flying need not be hazardous if you follow the recommendations below. b. File a Flight Plan. Plan your route to avoid topography which would prevent a safe forced landing. The route should be over populated areas and well known mountain passes. Sufficient altitude should be maintained to permit gliding to a safe landing in the event of engine failure. c. Don’t fly a light aircraft when the winds aloft, at your proposed altitude, exceed 35 miles per hour. Expect the winds to be of much greater velocity over mountain passes than reported a few miles from them. Approach mountain passes with as much altitude as possible. Downdrafts of from 1,500 to 2,000 feet per minute are not uncommon on the leeward side. d. Don’t fly near or above abrupt changes in terrain. Severe turbulence can be expected, especially in high wind conditions. e. Understand Mountain Obscuration. The term Mountain Obscuration (MTOS) is used to describe a visibility condition that is distinguished from IFR because ceilings, by definition, are described as “above ground level” (AGL). In mountainous terrain clouds can form at altitudes significantly higher than the weather reporting station and at the same time nearby mountaintops may be obscured by low visibility. In these areas the ground level can also vary greatly over a small area. Beware if operating VFR-on-top. You could be operating closer to the terrain than you think because the tops of mountains are hidden in a cloud deck below. MTOS areas are identified daily on The Aviation Weather Center located at: http://www.aviationweather.gov. 7/31/08 AIM AIM 2/14/7-5-4 Potential Flight Hazards f. Some canyons run into a dead end. Don’t fly so far up a canyon that you get trapped. ALWAYS BE ABLE TO MAKE A 180 DEGREE TURN! g. VFR flight operations may be conducted at night in mountainous terrain with the application of sound judgment and common sense. Proper pre-flight planning, giving ample consideration to winds and weather, knowledge of the terrain and pilot experience in mountain flying are prerequisites for safety of flight. Continuous visual contact with the surface and obstructions is a major concern and flight operations under an overcast or in the vicinity of clouds should be approached with extreme caution. h. When landing at a high altitude field, the same indicated airspeed should be used as at low elevation fields. Remember: that due to the less dense air at altitude, this same indicated airspeed actually results in higher true airspeed, a faster landing speed, and more important, a longer landing distance. During gusty wind conditions which often prevail at high altitude fields, a power approach and power landing is recommended. Additionally, due to the faster groundspeed, your takeoff distance will increase considerably over that required at low altitudes. i. Effects of Density Altitude. Performance figures in the aircraft owner’s handbook for length of takeoff run, horsepower, rate of climb, etc., are generally based on standard atmosphere conditions (59 degrees Fahrenheit (15 degrees Celsius), pressure 29.92 inches of mercury) at sea level. However, inexperienced pilots, as well as experienced pilots, may run into trouble when they encounter an altogether different set of conditions. This is particularly true in hot weather and at higher elevations. Aircraft operations at altitudes above sea level and at higher than standard temperatures are commonplace in mountainous areas. Such operations quite often result in a drastic reduction of aircraft performance capabilities because of the changing air density. Density altitude is a measure of air density. It is not to be confused with pressure altitude, true altitude or absolute altitude. It is not to be used as a height reference, but as a determining criteria in the performance capability of an aircraft. Air density decreases with altitude. As air density decreases, density altitude increases. The further effects of high temperature and high humidity are cumulative, resulting in an increasing high density altitude condition. High density altitude reduces all aircraft performance parameters. To the pilot, this means that the normal horsepower output is reduced, propeller efficiency is reduced and a higher true airspeed is required to sustain the aircraft throughout its operating parameters. It means an increase in runway length requirements for takeoff and landings, and decreased rate of climb. An average small airplane, for example, requiring 1,000 feet for takeoff at sea level under standard atmospheric conditions will require a takeoff run of approximately 2,000 feet at an operational altitude of 5,000 feet. NOTE- A turbo-charged aircraft engine provides some slight advantage in that it provides sea level horsepower up to a specified altitude above sea level. 1. Density Altitude Advisories. At airports with elevations of 2,000 feet and higher, control towers and FSSs will broadcast the advisory “Check Density Altitude” when the temperature reaches a predetermined level. These advisories will be broadcast on appropriate tower frequencies or, where available, ATIS. FSSs will broadcast these advisories as a part of Local Airport Advisory, and on TWEB. 2. These advisories are provided by air traffic facilities, as a reminder to pilots that high temperatures and high field elevations will cause significant changes in aircraft characteristics. The pilot retains the responsibility to compute density altitude, when appropriate, as a part of preflight duties. NOTE- All FSSs will compute the current density altitude upon request. j. Mountain Wave. Many pilots go all their lives without understanding what a mountain wave is. Quite a few have lost their lives because of this lack of understanding. One need not be a licensed meteorologist to understand the mountain wave phenomenon. 3/15/07 7110.65R CHG 2 AIM 7/31/08 AIM 2/14/08 7-5-5 Potential Flight Hazards 1. Mountain waves occur when air is being blown over a mountain range or even the ridge of a sharp bluff area. As the air hits the upwind side of the range, it starts to climb, thus creating what is generally a smooth updraft which turns into a turbulent downdraft as the air passes the crest of the ridge. From this point, for many miles downwind, there will be a series of downdrafts and updrafts. Satellite photos of the Rockies have shown mountain waves extending as far as 700 miles downwind of the range. Along the east coast area, such photos of the Appalachian chain have picked up the mountain wave phenomenon over a hundred miles eastward. All it takes to form a mountain wave is wind blowing across the range at 15 knots or better at an intersection angle of not less than 30 degrees. 2. Pilots from flatland areas should understand a few things about mountain waves in order to stay out of trouble. When approaching a mountain range from the upwind side (generally the west), there will usually be a smooth updraft; therefore, it is not quite as dangerous an area as the lee of the range. From the leeward side, it is always a good idea to add an extra thousand feet or so of altitude because downdrafts can exceed the climb capability of the aircraft. Never expect an updraft when approaching a mountain chain from the leeward. Always be prepared to cope with a downdraft and turbulence. 3. When approaching a mountain ridge from the downwind side, it is recommended that the ridge be approached at approximately a 45 degree angle to the horizontal direction of the ridge. This permits a safer retreat from the ridge with less stress on the aircraft should severe turbulence and downdraft be experienced. If severe turbulence is encountered, simultaneously reduce power and adjust pitch until aircraft approaches maneuvering speed, then adjust power and trim to maintain maneuvering speed and fly away from the turbulent area. 7-5-7. Use of Runway Half-way Signs at Unimproved Airports When installed, runway half-way signs provide the pilot with a reference point to judge takeoff acceleration trends. Assuming that the runway length is appropriate for takeoff (considering runway condition and slope, elevation, aircraft weight, wind, and temperature), typical takeoff acceleration should allow the airplane to reach 70 percent of lift-off airspeed by the midpoint of the runway. The “rule of thumb” is that should airplane acceleration not allow the airspeed to reach this value by the midpoint, the takeoff should be aborted, as it may not be possible to liftoff in the remaining runway. Several points are important when considering using this “rule of thumb”: a. Airspeed indicators in small airplanes are not required to be evaluated at speeds below stalling, and may not be usable at 70 percent of liftoff airspeed.

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b. This “rule of thumb” is based on a uniform surface condition. Puddles, soft spots, areas of tall and/or wet grass, loose gravel, etc., may impede acceleration or even cause deceleration. Even if the airplane achieves 70 percent of liftoff airspeed by the midpoint, the condition of the remainder of the runway may not allow further acceleration. The entire length of the runway should be inspected prior to takeoff to ensure a usable surface. c. This “rule of thumb” applies only to runway required for actual liftoff. In the event that obstacles affect the takeoff climb path, appropriate distance must be available after liftoff to accelerate to best angle of climb speed and to clear the obstacles. This will, in effect, require the airplane to accelerate to a higher speed by midpoint, particularly if the obstacles are close to the end of the runway. In addition, this technique does not take into account the effects of upslope or tailwinds on takeoff performance. These factors will also require greater acceleration than normal and, under some circumstances, prevent takeoff entirely. d. Use of this “rule of thumb” does not alleviate the pilot’s responsibility to comply with applicable Federal Aviation Regulations, the limitations and performance data provided in the FAA approved Airplane Flight Manual (AFM), or, in the absence of an FAA approved AFM, other data provided by the aircraft manufacturer. In addition to their use during takeoff, runway half-way signs offer the pilot increased awareness of his or her position along the runway during landing operations. 7/31/08 AIM AIM 2/14/7-5-6 Potential Flight Hazards NOTE- No FAA standard exists for the appearance of the runway half-way sign. FIG 7-5-1 shows a graphical depiction of a typical runway half-way sign. 7-5-8. Seaplane Safety a. Acquiring a seaplane class rating affords access to many areas not available to landplane pilots. Adding a seaplane class rating to your pilot certificate can be relatively uncomplicated and inexpensive. However, more effort is required to become a safe, efficient, competent “bush” pilot. The natural hazards of the backwoods have given way to modern man-made hazards. Except for the far north, the available bodies of water are no longer the exclusive domain of the airman. Seaplane pilots must be vigilant for hazards such as electric power lines, power, sail and rowboats, rafts, mooring lines, water skiers, swimmers, etc. FIG 7-5-1 Typical Runway Half-way Sign b. Seaplane pilots must have a thorough understanding of the right-of-way rules as they apply to aircraft versus other vessels. Seaplane pilots are expected to know and adhere to both the U.S. Coast Guard's (USCG) Navigation Rules, International-Inland, and 14 CFR Section 91.115, Right-of-Way Rules; Water Operations. The navigation rules of the road are a set of collision avoidance rules as they apply to aircraft on the water. A seaplane is considered a vessel when on the water for the purposes of these collision avoidance rules. In general, a seaplane on the water shall keep well clear of all vessels and avoid impeding their navigation. The CFR requires, in part, that aircraft operating on the water “. . . shall, insofar as possible, keep clear of all vessels and avoid impeding their navigation, and shall give way to any vessel or other aircraft that is given the right-of-way . . . .” This means that a seaplane should avoid boats and commercial shipping when on the water. If on a collision course, the seaplane should slow, stop, or maneuver to the right, away from the bow of the oncoming vessel. Also, while on the surface with an engine running, an aircraft must give way to all nonpowered vessels. Since a seaplane in the water may not be as maneuverable as one in the air, the aircraft on the water has right-of-way over one in the air, and one taking off has right-of-way over one landing. A seaplane is exempt from the USCG safety equipment requirements, including the requirements for Personal Flotation Devices (PFD). Requiring seaplanes on the water to comply with USCG equipment requirements in addition to the FAA equipment requirements would be an unnecessary burden on seaplane owners and operators. c. Unless they are under Federal jurisdiction, navigable bodies of water are under the jurisdiction of the state, or in a few cases, privately owned. Unless they are specifically restricted, aircraft have as much right to operate on these bodies of water as other vessels. To avoid problems, check with Federal or local officials in advance of operating on unfamiliar waters. In addition to the agencies listed in TBL 7-5-1, the nearest Flight Standards District Office can usually offer some practical suggestions as well as regulatory information. If you land on a restricted body of water because of an inflight emergency, or in ignorance of the restrictions you have violated, report as quickly as practical to the nearest local official having jurisdiction and explain your situation. d. When operating a seaplane over or into remote areas, appropriate attention should be given to survival gear. Minimum kits are recommended for summer and winter, and are required by law for flight into sparsely settled areas of Canada and Alaska. Alaska State Department of Transportation and Canadian Ministry of Transport officials can provide specific information on survival gear requirements. The kit should be assembled in one container and be easily reachable and preferably floatable. 3/15/07 7110.65R CHG 2 AIM 7/31/08 AIM 2/14/08 7-5-7 Potential Flight Hazards TBL 7-5-1 Jurisdictions Controlling Navigable Bodies of Water Authority to Consult For Use of a Body of Water Location Authority Contact Wilderness Area U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service Local forest ranger National Forest USDA Forest Service Local forest ranger National Park U.S. Department of the Interior, National Park Service Local park ranger Indian Reservation USDI, Bureau of Indian Affairs Local Bureau office State Park State government or state forestry or park service Local state aviation office for further information Canadian National and Provincial Parks Supervised and restricted on an individual basis from province to province and by different departments of the Canadian government; consult Canadian Flight Information Manual and/or Water Aerodrome Supplement Park Superintendent in an emergency e. The FAA recommends that each seaplane owner or operator provide flotation gear for occupants any time a seaplane operates on or near water. 14 CFR Section 91.205(b)(12) requires approved flotation gear for aircraft operated for hire over water and beyond power-off gliding distance from shore. FAA-approved gear differs from that required for navigable waterways under USCG rules. FAA-approved life vests are inflatable designs as compared to the USCG’s noninflatable PFD’s that may consist of solid, bulky material. Such USCG PFDs are impractical for seaplanes and other aircraft because they may block passage through the relatively narrow exits available to pilots and passengers. Life vests approved under Technical Standard Order (TSO) TSO-C13E contain fully inflatable compartments. The wearer inflates the compartments (AFTER exiting the aircraft) primarily by independent CO2 cartridges, with an oral inflation tube as a backup. The flotation gear also contains a water-activated, self-illuminating signal light. The fact that pilots and passengers can easily don and wear inflatable life vests (when not inflated) provides maximum effectiveness and allows for unrestricted movement. It is imperative that passengers are briefed on the location and proper use of available PFDs prior to leaving the dock. f. The FAA recommends that seaplane owners and operators obtain Advisory Circular (AC) 91-69, Seaplane Safety for 14 CFR Part 91 Operations, free from the U.S. Department of Transportation, Subsequent Distribution Office, SVC-121.23, Ardmore East Business Center, 3341 Q 75th Avenue, Landover, MD 20785; fax: (301) 386-5394. The USCG Navigation Rules International-Inland (COMDTINSTM 16672.2B) is available for a fee from the Government Printing Office by facsimile request to (202) 512-2250, and can be ordered using Mastercard or Visa. 7-5-9. Flight Operations in Volcanic Ash a. Severe volcanic eruptions which send ash into the upper atmosphere occur somewhere around the world several times each year. Flying into a volcanic ash cloud can be exceedingly dangerous. A B747-200 lost all four engines after such an encounter and a B747-400 had the same nearly catastrophic experience. Piston-powered aircraft are less likely to lose power but severe damage is almost certain to ensue after an encounter with a volcanic ash cloud which is only a few hours old. b. Most important is to avoid any encounter with volcanic ash. The ash plume may not be visible, especially in instrument conditions or at night; and even if visible, it is difficult to distinguish visually between an ash cloud and an ordinary weather cloud. Volcanic ash clouds are not displayed on airborne or ATC radar. The pilot must rely on reports from air traffic controllers and other pilots to determine the location of the ash cloud and use that information to remain well clear of the area. Every attempt should be made to remain on the upwind side of the volcano. c. It is recommended that pilots encountering an ash cloud should immediately reduce thrust to idle (altitude permitting), and reverse course in order to escape from the cloud. Ash clouds may extend for hundreds of miles and pilots should not attempt to fly through or climb out of the cloud. In addition, the following procedures are recommended: 7/31/08 AIM AIM 2/14/7-5-8 Potential Flight Hazards 1. Disengage the autothrottle if engaged. This will prevent the autothrottle from increasing engine thrust; 2. Turn on continuous ignition; 3. Turn on all accessory airbleeds including all air conditioning packs, nacelles, and wing anti-ice. This will provide an additional engine stall margin by reducing engine pressure. d. The following has been reported by flightcrews who have experienced encounters with volcanic dust clouds: 1. Smoke or dust appearing in the cockpit. 2. An acrid odor similar to electrical smoke. 3. Multiple engine malfunctions, such as compressor stalls, increasing EGT, torching from tailpipe, and flameouts. 4. At night, St. Elmo’s fire or other static discharges accompanied by a bright orange glow in the engine inlets. 5. A fire warning in the forward cargo area. e. It may become necessary to shut down and then restart engines to prevent exceeding EGT limits. Volcanic ash may block the pitot system and result in unreliable airspeed indications. f. If you see a volcanic eruption and have not been previously notified of it, you may have been the first person to observe it. In this case, immediately contact ATC and alert them to the existence of the eruption. If possible, use the Volcanic Activity Reporting form (VAR) depicted in Appendix 2 of this manual. Items 1 through 8 of the VAR should be transmitted immediately. The information requested in items 9 through 16 should be passed after landing. If a VAR form is not immediately available, relay enough information to identify the position and nature of the volcanic activity. Do not become unnecessarily alarmed if there is merely steam or very low-level eruptions of ash. g. When landing at airports where volcanic ash has been deposited on the runway, be aware that even a thin layer of dry ash can be detrimental to braking action. Wet ash on the runway may also reduce effectiveness of braking. It is recommended that reverse thrust be limited to minimum practical to reduce the possibility of reduced visibility and engine ingestion of airborne ash. h. When departing from airports where volcanic ash has been deposited, it is recommended that pilots avoid operating in visible airborne ash. Allow ash to settle before initiating takeoff roll. It is also recommended that flap extension be delayed until initiating the before takeoff checklist and that a rolling takeoff be executed to avoid blowing ash back into the air. 7-5-10. Emergency Airborne Inspection of Other Aircraft a. Providing airborne assistance to another aircraft may involve flying in very close proximity to that aircraft. Most pilots receive little, if any, formal training or instruction in this type of flying activity. Close proximity flying without sufficient time to plan (i.e., in an emergency situation), coupled with the stress involved in a perceived emergency can be hazardous. b. The pilot in the best position to assess the situation should take the responsibility of coordinating the airborne intercept and inspection, and take into account the unique flight characteristics and differences of the category(s) of aircraft involved. c. Some of the safety considerations are: 1. Area, direction and speed of the intercept; 2. Aerodynamic effects (i.e., rotorcraft downwash); 3. Minimum safe separation distances; 4. Communications requirements, lost communications procedures, coordination with ATC; 5. Suitability of diverting the distressed aircraft to the nearest safe airport; and 6. Emergency actions to terminate the intercept. d. Close proximity, inflight inspection of another aircraft is uniquely hazardous. The pilot-in- command of the aircraft experiencing the problem/emergency must not relinquish control of the situation and/or jeopardize the safety of their aircraft. The maneuver must be accomplished with minimum risk to both aircraft. 3/15/07 7110.65R CHG 2 AIM 7/31/08 AIM 2/14/08 7-5-9 Potential Flight Hazards 7-5-11. Precipitation Static a. Precipitation static is caused by aircraft in flight coming in contact with uncharged particles. These particles can be rain, snow, fog, sleet, hail, volcanic ash, dust; any solid or liquid particles. When the aircraft strikes these neutral particles the positive element of the particle is reflected away from the aircraft and the negative particle adheres to the skin of the aircraft. In a very short period of time a substantial negative charge will develop on the skin of the aircraft. If the aircraft is not equipped with static dischargers, or has an ineffective static discharger system, when a sufficient negative voltage level is reached, the aircraft may go into “CORONA.” That is, it will discharge the static electricity from the extremities of the aircraft, such as the wing tips, horizontal stabilizer, vertical stabilizer, antenna, propeller tips, etc. This discharge of static electricity is what you will hear in your headphones and is what we call P-static. b. A review of pilot reports often shows different symptoms with each problem that is encountered. The following list of problems is a summary of many pilot reports from many different aircraft. Each problem was caused by P-static: 1. Complete loss of VHF communications. 2. Erroneous magnetic compass readings (30 percent in error). 3. High pitched squeal on audio. 4. Motor boat sound on audio. 5. Loss of all avionics in clouds. 6. VLF navigation system inoperative most of the time. 7. Erratic instrument readouts. 8. Weak transmissions and poor receptivity of radios. 9. “St. Elmo’s Fire” on windshield. c. Each of these symptoms is caused by one general problem on the airframe. This problem is the inability of the accumulated charge to flow easily to the wing tips and tail of the airframe, and properly discharge to the airstream. d. Static dischargers work on the principal of creating a relatively easy path for discharging negative charges that develop on the aircraft by using a discharger with fine metal points, carbon coated rods, or carbon wicks rather than wait until a large charge is developed and discharged off the trailing edges of the aircraft that will interfere with avionics equipment. This process offers approximately 50 decibels (dB) static noise reduction which is adequate in most cases to be below the threshold of noise that would cause interference in avionics equipment. e. It is important to remember that precipitation static problems can only be corrected with the proper number of quality static dischargers, properly installed on a properly bonded aircraft. P-static is indeed a problem in the all weather operation of the aircraft, but there are effective ways to combat it. All possible methods of reducing the effects of P-static should be considered so as to provide the best possible performance in the flight environment. f. A wide variety of discharger designs is available on the commercial market. The inclusion of well-designed dischargers may be expected to improve airframe noise in P-static conditions by as much as 50 dB. Essentially, the discharger provides a path by which accumulated charge may leave the airframe quietly. This is generally accomplished by providing a group of tiny corona points to permit onset of corona-current flow at a low aircraft potential. Additionally, aerodynamic design of dischargers to permit corona to occur at the lowest possible atmospheric pressure also lowers the corona threshold. In addition to permitting a low-potential discharge, the discharger will minimize the radiation of radio frequency (RF) energy which accompanies the corona discharge, in order to minimize effects of RF components at communications and navigation frequencies on avionics performance. These effects are reduced through resistive attachment of the corona point(s) to the airframe, preserving direct current connection but attenuating the higher-frequency components of the discharge. g. Each manufacturer of static dischargers offers information concerning appropriate discharger location on specific airframes. Such locations emphasize the trailing outboard surfaces of wings and horizontal tail surfaces, plus the tip of the vertical stabilizer, where charge tends to accumulate on the airframe. 7/31/08 AIM AIM 2/14/7-5-10 Potential Flight Hazards Sufficient dischargers must be provided to allow for current-carrying capacity which will maintain airframe potential below the corona threshold of the trailing edges. h. In order to achieve full performance of avionic equipment, the static discharge system will require periodic maintenance. A pilot knowledgeable of P-static causes and effects is an important element in assuring optimum performance by early recognition of these types of problems. 7-5-12. Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation (Laser) Operations and Reporting Illumination of Aircraft a. Lasers have many applications. Of concern to users of the National Airspace System are those laser events that may affect pilots, e.g., outdoor laser light shows or demonstrations for entertainment and advertisements at special events and theme parks. Generally, the beams from these events appear as bright blue-green in color; however, they may be red, yellow, or white. However, some laser systems produce light which is invisible to the human eye. b. FAA regulations prohibit the disruption of aviation activity by any person on the ground or in the air. The FAA and the Food and Drug Administration (the Federal agency that has the responsibility to enforce compliance with Federal requirements for laser systems and laser light show products) are working together to ensure that operators of these devices do not pose a hazard to aircraft operators. c. Pilots should be aware that illumination from these laser operations are able to create temporary vision impairment miles from the actual location. In addition, these operations can produce permanent eye damage. Pilots should make themselves aware of where these activities are being conducted and avoid these areas if possible. d. Recent and increasing incidents of unauthorized illumination of aircraft by lasers, as well as the proliferation and increasing sophistication of laser devices available to the general public, dictates that the FAA, in coordination with other government agencies, take action to safeguard flights from these unauthorized illuminations. e. Pilots should report laser illumination activity to the controlling Air Traffic Control facilities, Federal Contract Towers or Flight Service Stations as soon as possible after the event. The following information should be included: 1. UTC Date and Time of Event. 2. Call Sign or Aircraft Registration Number. 3. Type Aircraft. 4. Nearest Major City. 5. Altitude. 6. Location of Event (Latitude/Longitude and/ or Fixed Radial Distance (FRD)). 7. Brief Description of the Event and any other Pertinent Information. f. Pilots are also encouraged to complete the Laser Beam Exposure Questionnaire (See Appendix 3), and fax it to the Washington Operations Center Complex (WOCC) as soon as possible after landing. g. When a laser event is reported to an air traffic facility, a general caution warning will be broadcasted on all appropriate frequencies every five minutes for 20 minutes and broadcasted on the ATIS for one hour following the report. PHRASEOLOGY- UNAUTHORIZED LASER ILLUMINATION EVENT, (UTC time), (location), (altitude), (color), (direction). EXAMPLE- “Unauthorized laser illumination event, at 0100z, 8 mile final runway 18R at 3,000 feet, green laser from the southwest.” REFERENCE- FAAO 7110.65, Unauthorized Laser Illumination of Aircraft, Para 10-2-14. FAAO 7210.3, Reporting Laser Illumination of Aircraft, Para 2-1-27. h. When these activities become known to the FAA, Notices to Airmen (NOTAMs) are issued to inform the aviation community of the events. Pilots should consult NOTAMs or the Special Notices section of the Airport/Facility Directory for information regarding these activities. 7-5-13. Flying in Flat Light and White Out Conditions a. Flat Light. Flat light is an optical illusion, also known as “sector or partial white out.” It is not as severe as “white out” but the condition causes pilots to lose their depth-of-field and contrast in vision. 3/15/07 7110.65R CHG 2 AIM 7/31/08 AIM 2/14/08 7-5-11 Potential Flight Hazards Flat light conditions are usually accompanied by overcast skies inhibiting any visual clues. Such conditions can occur anywhere in the world, primarily in snow covered areas but can occur in dust, sand, mud flats, or on glassy water. Flat light can completely obscure features of the terrain, creating an inability to distinguish distances and closure rates. As a result of this reflected light, it can give pilots the illusion that they are ascending or descending when they may actually be flying level. However, with good judgment and proper training and planning, it is possible to safely operate an aircraft in flat light conditions. b. White Out. As defined in meteorological terms, white out occurs when a person becomes engulfed in a uniformly white glow. The glow is a result of being surrounded by blowing snow, dust, sand, mud or water. There are no shadows, no horizon or clouds and all depth-of-field and orientation are lost. A white out situation is severe in that there are no visual references. Flying is not recommended in any white out situation. Flat light conditions can lead to a white out environment quite rapidly, and both atmospheric conditions are insidious; they sneak up on you as your visual references slowly begin to disappear. White out has been the cause of several aviation accidents. c. Self Induced White Out. This effect typically occurs when a helicopter takes off or lands on a snow-covered area. The rotor down wash picks up particles and re-circulates them through the rotor down wash. The effect can vary in intensity depending upon the amount of light on the surface. This can happen on the sunniest, brightest day with good contrast everywhere. However, when it happens, there can be a complete loss of visual clues. If the pilot has not prepared for this immediate loss of visibility, the results can be disastrous. Good planning does not prevent one from encountering flat light or white out conditions. d. Never take off in a white out situation. 1. Realize that in flat light conditions it may be possible to depart but not to return to that site. During takeoff, make sure you have a reference point. Do not lose sight of it until you have a departure reference point in view. Be prepared to return to the takeoff reference if the departure reference does not come into view. 2. Flat light is common to snow skiers. One way to compensate for the lack of visual contrast and depth-of-field loss is by wearing amber tinted lenses (also known as blue blockers). Special note of caution: Eyewear is not ideal for every pilot. Take into consideration personal factors -age, light sensitivity, and ambient lighting conditions. 3. So what should a pilot do when all visual references are lost? (a) Trust the cockpit instruments. (b) Execute a 180 degree turnaround and start looking for outside references. (c) Above all -fly the aircraft. e. Landing in Low Light Conditions. When landing in a low light condition -use extreme caution. Look for intermediate reference points, in addition to checkpoints along each leg of the route for course confirmation and timing. The lower the ambient light becomes, the more reference points a pilot should use. f. Airport Landings. 1. Look for features around the airport or approach path that can be used in determining depth perception. Buildings, towers, vehicles or other aircraft serve well for this measurement. Use something that will provide you with a sense of height above the ground, in addition to orienting you to the runway. 2. Be cautious of snowdrifts and snow banks - anything that can distinguish the edge of the runway. Look for subtle changes in snow texture or shading to identify ridges or changes in snow depth. g. Off-Airport Landings. 1. In the event of an off-airport landing, pilots have used a number of different visual cues to gain reference. Use whatever you must to create the contrast you need. Natural references seem to work best (trees, rocks, snow ribs, etc.) (a) Over flight. (b) Use of markers. (c) Weighted flags. (d) Smoke bombs. (e) Any colored rags. 7/31/08 AIM AIM 2/14/7-5-12 Potential Flight Hazards (f) Dye markers. (g) Kool-aid. (h) Trees or tree branches. 2. It is difficult to determine the depth of snow in areas that are level. Dropping items from the aircraft to use as reference points should be used as a visual aid only and not as a primary landing reference. Unless your marker is biodegradable, be sure to retrieve it after landing. Never put yourself in a position where no visual references exist. 3. Abort landing if blowing snow obscures your reference. Make your decisions early. Don’t assume you can pick up a lost reference point when you get closer. 4. Exercise extreme caution when flying from sunlight into shade. Physical awareness may tell you that you are flying straight but you may actually be in a spiral dive with centrifugal force pressing against you. Having no visual references enhances this illusion. Just because you have a good visual reference does not mean that it’s safe to continue. There may be snow-covered terrain not visible in the direction that you are traveling. Getting caught in a no visual reference situation can be fatal. h. Flying Around a Lake. 1. When flying along lakeshores, use them as a reference point. Even if you can see the other side, realize that your depth perception may be poor. It is easy to fly into the surface. If you must cross the lake, check the altimeter frequently and maintain a safe altitude while you still have a good reference. Don’t descend below that altitude. 2. The same rules apply to seemingly flat areas of snow. If you don’t have good references, avoid going there. i. Other Traffic. Be on the look out for other traffic in the area. Other aircraft may be using your same reference point. Chances are greater of colliding with someone traveling in the same direction as you, than someone flying in the opposite direction. j. Ceilings. Low ceilings have caught many pilots off guard. Clouds do not always form parallel to the surface, or at the same altitude. Pilots may try to compensate for this by flying with a slight bank and thus creating a descending turn. k. Glaciers. Be conscious of your altitude when flying over glaciers. The glaciers may be rising faster than you are climbing. 7-5-14. Operations in Ground Icing Conditions a. The presence of aircraft airframe icing during takeoff, typically caused by improper or no deicing of the aircraft being accomplished prior to flight has contributed to many recent accidents in turbine aircraft. The General Aviation Joint Steering Committee (GAJSC) is the primary vehicle for government-industry cooperation, communication, and coordination on GA accident mitigation. The Turbine Aircraft Operations Subgroup (TAOS) works to mitigate accidents in turbine accident aviation. While there is sufficient information and guidance currently available regarding the effects of icing on aircraft and methods for deicing, the TAOS has developed a list of recommended actions to further assist pilots and operators in this area. While the efforts of the TAOS specifically focus on turbine aircraft, it is recognized that their recommendations are applicable to and can be adapted for the pilot of a small, piston powered aircraft too. b. The following recommendations are offered: 1. Ensure that your aircraft’s lift-generating surfaces are COMPLETELY free of contamination before flight through a tactile (hands on) check of the critical surfaces when feasible. Even when otherwise permitted, operators should avoid smooth or polished frost on lift-generating surfaces as an acceptable preflight condition. 2. Review and refresh your cold weather standard operating procedures. 3. Review and be familiar with the Airplane Flight Manual (AFM) limitations and procedures necessary to deal with icing conditions prior to flight, as well as in flight. 4. Protect your aircraft while on the ground, if possible, from sleet and freezing rain by taking advantage of aircraft hangars. 5. Take full advantage of the opportunities available at airports for deicing. Do not refuse deicing services simply because of cost. 3/15/07 7110.65R CHG 2 AIM 7/31/08 AIM 2/14/08 7-5-13 Potential Flight Hazards 6. Always consider canceling or delaying a flight if weather conditions do not support a safe operation. c. If you haven’t already developed a set of Standard Operating Procedures for cold weather operations, they should include: 1. Procedures based on information that is applicable to the aircraft operated, such as AFM limitations and procedures; 2. Concise and easy to understand guidance that outlines best operational practices; 3. A systematic procedure for recognizing, evaluating and addressing the associated icing risk, and offer clear guidance to mitigate this risk; 4. An aid (such as a checklist or reference cards) that is readily available during normal day-to-day aircraft operations. d. There are several sources for guidance relating to airframe icing, including: 1. http://aircrafticing.grc.nasa.gov/index.html 2. http://www.ibac.org/is-bao/isbao.htm 3. http://www.natasafety1st.org/bus_deice.htm 4. Advisory Circular (AC) 91-74, Pilot Guide, Flight in Icing Conditions. 5. AC 135-17, Pilot Guide Small Aircraft Ground Deicing. 6. AC 135-9, FAR Part 135 Icing Limitations. 7. AC 120-60, Ground Deicing and Anti-icing Program. 8. AC 135-16, Ground Deicing and Anti-icing Training and Checking. The FAA Approved Deicing Program Updates is published annually as a Flight Standards Information Bulletin for Air Transportation and contains detailed information on deicing and anti-icing procedures and holdover times. It may be accessed at the following web site by selecting the current year’s information bulletins: http://www.faa.gov/library/manuals/examiners_inspe ctors/8400/fsat 7/31/08 AIM AIM 2/14/08 7-6-1 Safety, Accident, and Hazard Reports

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Section 6. Safety, Accident, and Hazard Reports 7-6-1. Aviation Safety Reporting Program a. The FAA has established a voluntary Aviation Safety Reporting Program designed to stimulate the free and unrestricted flow of information concerning deficiencies and discrepancies in the aviation system. This is a positive program intended to ensure the safest possible system by identifying and correcting unsafe conditions before they lead to accidents. The primary objective of the program is to obtain information to evaluate and enhance the safety and efficiency of the present system. b. This cooperative safety reporting program invites pilots, controllers, flight attendants, mainte- nance personnel and other users of the airspace system, or any other person, to file written reports of actual or potential discrepancies and deficiencies involving the safety of aviation operations. The operations covered by the program include departure, en route, approach, and landing operations and procedures, air traffic control procedures and equipment, crew and air traffic control communica- tions, aircraft cabin operations, aircraft movement on the airport, near midair collisions, aircraft mainte- nance and record keeping and airport conditions or services. c. The report should give the date, time, location, persons and aircraft involved (if applicable), nature of the event, and all pertinent details. d. To ensure receipt of this information, the program provides for the waiver of certain disciplinary actions against persons, including pilots and air traffic controllers, who file timely written reports concerning potentially unsafe incidents. To be considered timely, reports must be delivered or postmarked within 10 days of the incident unless that period is extended for good cause. Reports should be submitted on NASA ARC Forms_277, which are available free of charge, postage prepaid, at FAA Flight Standards District Offices and Flight Service Stations, and from NASA, ASRS, PO Box 189, Moffet Field, CA 94035. e. The FAA utilizes the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) to act as an independent third party to receive and analyze reports submitted under the program. This program is described in AC_00-46, Aviation Safety Reporting Program. 7-6-2. Aircraft Accident and Incident Reporting a. Occurrences Requiring Notification. The operator of an aircraft shall immediately, and by the most expeditious means available, notify the nearest National Transportation Safety Board (NTSB) Field Office when: 1. An aircraft accident or any of the following listed incidents occur: (a) Flight control system malfunction or failure. (b) Inability of any required flight crew member to perform their normal flight duties as a result of injury or illness. (c) Failure of structural components of a turbine engine excluding compressor and turbine blades and vanes. (d) Inflight fire. (e) Aircraft collide in flight. (f) Damage to property, other than the aircraft, estimated to exceed $25,000 for repair (including materials and labor) or fair market value in the event of total loss, whichever is less. (g) For large multi-engine aircraft (more than 12,500 pounds maximum certificated takeoff weight): (1) Inflight failure of electrical systems which requires the sustained use of an emergency bus powered by a back-up source such as a battery, auxiliary power unit, or air-driven generator to retain flight control or essential instruments; (2) Inflight failure of hydraulic systems that results in sustained reliance on the sole remaining hydraulic or mechanical system for movement of flight control surfaces; (3) Sustained loss of the power or thrust produced by two or more engines; and (4) An evacuation of aircraft in which an emergency egress system is utilized. AIM 2/14/08 7-6-2 Safety, Accident, and Hazard Reports 2. An aircraft is overdue and is believed to have been involved in an accident. b. Manner of Notification. 1. The most expeditious method of notification to the NTSB by the operator will be determined by the circumstances existing at that time. The NTSB has advised that any of the following would be considered examples of the type of notification that would be acceptable: (a) Direct telephone notification. (b) Telegraphic notification. (c) Notification to the FAA who would in turn notify the NTSB by direct communication; i.e.,_dis- patch or telephone. c. Items to be Included in Notification. The notification required above shall contain the following information, if available: 1. Type, nationality, and registration marks of the aircraft. 2. Name of owner and operator of the aircraft. 3. Name of the pilot-in-command. 4. Date and time of the accident, or incident. 5. Last point of departure, and point of intended landing of the aircraft. 6. Position of the aircraft with reference to some easily defined geographical point. 7. Number of persons aboard, number killed, and number seriously injured. 8. Nature of the accident, or incident, the weather, and the extent of damage to the aircraft so far as is known; and 9. A description of any explosives, radioactive materials, or other dangerous articles carried. d. Follow-up Reports. 1. The operator shall file a report on NTSB Form 6120.1 or 6120.2, available from NTSB Field Offices or from the NTSB, Washington, DC, 20594: (a) Within 10 days after an accident; (b) When, after 7 days, an overdue aircraft is still missing; (c) A report on an incident for which notification is required as described in subpara- graph_a(1) shall be filed only as requested by an authorized representative of the NTSB. 2. Each crewmember, if physically able at the time the report is submitted, shall attach a statement setting forth the facts, conditions, and circumstances relating to the accident or incident as they appeared. If the crewmember is incapacitated, a statement shall be submitted as soon as physically possible. e. Where to File the Reports. 1. The operator of an aircraft shall file with the NTSB Field Office nearest the accident or incident any report required by this section. 2. The NTSB Field Offices are listed under U.S. Government in the telephone directories in the following cities: Anchorage, AK; Atlanta, GA; Chicago, IL; Denver, CO; Fort Worth, TX; Los_Angeles, CA; Miami, FL; Parsippany, NJ; Seattle, WA. 7-6-3. Near Midair Collision Reporting a. Purpose and Data Uses. The primary purpose of the Near Midair Collision (NMAC) Reporting Program is to provide information for use in enhancing the safety and efficiency of the National Airspace System. Data obtained from NMAC reports are used by the FAA to improve the quality of FAA services to users and to develop programs, policies, and procedures aimed at the reduction of NMAC occurrences. All NMAC reports are thoroughly investigated by Flight Standards Facilities in coordination with Air Traffic Facilities. Data from these investigations are transmitted to FAA Head- quarters in Washington, DC, where they are compiled and analyzed, and where safety programs and recommendations are developed. b. Definition. A near midair collision is defined as an incident associated with the operation of an aircraft in which a possibility of collision occurs as a result of proximity of less than 500 feet to another aircraft, or a report is received from a pilot or a flight crew member stating that a collision hazard existed between two or more aircraft. c. Reporting Responsibility. It is the responsi- bility of the pilot and/or flight crew to determine whether a near midair collision did actually occur and, if so, to initiate a NMAC report. Be specific, as AIM 2/14/08 7-6-3 Safety, Accident, and Hazard Reports ATC will not interpret a casual remark to mean that a NMAC is being reported. The pilot should state “I wish to report a near midair collision.” d. Where to File Reports. Pilots and/or flight crew members involved in NMAC occurrences are urged to report each incident immediately: 1. By radio or telephone to the nearest FAA ATC facility or FSS. 2. In writing, in lieu of the above, to the nearest Flight Standards District Office (FSDO). e. Items to be Reported. 1. Date and time (UTC) of incident. 2. Location of incident and altitude. 3. Identification and type of reporting aircraft, aircrew destination, name and home base of pilot. 4. Identification and type of other aircraft, aircrew destination, name and home base of pilot. 5. Type of flight plans; station altimeter setting used. 6. Detailed weather conditions at altitude or flight level. 7. Approximate courses of both aircraft: indicate if one or both aircraft were climbing or descending. 8. Reported separation in distance at first sighting, proximity at closest point horizontally and vertically, and length of time in sight prior to evasive action. 9. Degree of evasive action taken, if any (from both aircraft, if possible). 10. Injuries, if any. f. Investigation. The FSDO in whose area the incident occurred is responsible for the investigation and reporting of NMACs. g. Existing radar, communication, and weather data will be examined in the conduct of the investigation. When possible, all cockpit crew members will be interviewed regarding factors involving the NMAC incident. Air traffic controllers will be interviewed in cases where one or more of the involved aircraft was provided ATC service. Both flight and ATC procedures will be evaluated. When the investigation reveals a violation of an FAA regulation, enforcement action will be pursued. 7-6-4. Unidentified Flying Object (UFO) Reports a. Persons wanting to report UFO/Unexplained Phenomena activity should contact an UFO/Unex- plained Phenomena Reporting Data Collection Center, such as the National Institute for Discovery Sciences (NIDS), the National UFO Reporting Center, etc. b. If concern is expressed that life or property might be endangered, report the activity to the local law enforcement department. AIM 2/14/08 8-1-1 Fitness for Flight Chapter 8. Medical Facts for Pilots Section 1. Fitness for Flight 8-1-1. Fitness For Flight a. Medical Certification. 1. All pilots except those flying gliders and free air balloons must possess valid medical certificates in order to exercise the privileges of their airman certificates. The periodic medical examinations required for medical certification are conducted by designated Aviation Medical Examiners, who are physicians with a special interest in aviation safety and training in aviation medicine. 2. The standards for medical certification are contained in 14 CFR Part 67. Pilots who have a history of certain medical conditions described in these standards are mandatorily disqualified from flying. These medical conditions include a personality disorder manifested by overt acts, a psychosis, alcoholism, drug dependence, epilepsy, an_unexplained disturbance of consciousness, myocardial infarction, angina pectoris and diabetes requiring medication for its control. Other medical conditions may be temporarily disqualifying, such as acute infections, anemia, and peptic ulcer. Pilots who do not meet medical standards may still be qualified under special issuance provisions or the exemption process. This may require that either additional medical information be provided or practical flight tests be conducted. 3. Student pilots should visit an Aviation Medical Examiner as soon as possible in their flight training in order to avoid unnecessary training expenses should they not meet the medical standards. For the same reason, the student pilot who plans to enter commercial aviation should apply for the highest class of medical certificate that might be necessary in the pilot's career. CAUTION- The CFRs prohibit a pilot who possesses a current medical certificate from performing crewmember duties while the pilot has a known medical condition or increase of a known medical condition that would make the pilot unable to meet the standards for the medical certificate. b. Illness. 1. Even a minor illness suffered in day-to-day living can seriously degrade performance of many piloting tasks vital to safe flight. Illness can produce fever and distracting symptoms that can impair judgment, memory, alertness, and the ability to make calculations. Although symptoms from an illness may be under adequate control with a medication, the medication itself may decrease pilot performance. 2. The safest rule is not to fly while suffering from any illness. If this rule is considered too stringent for a particular illness, the pilot should contact an Aviation Medical Examiner for advice. c. Medication. 1. Pilot performance can be seriously degraded by both prescribed and over-the-counter medications, as well as by the medical conditions for which they are taken. Many medications, such as tranquilizers, sedatives, strong pain relievers, and cough-suppres- sant preparations, have primary effects that may impair judgment, memory, alertness, coordination, vision, and the ability to make calculations. Others, such as antihistamines, blood pressure drugs, muscle relaxants, and agents to control diarrhea and motion sickness, have side effects that may impair the same critical functions. Any medication that depresses the nervous system, such as a sedative, tranquilizer or antihistamine, can make a pilot much more susceptible to hypoxia. 2. The CFRs prohibit pilots from performing crewmember duties while using any medication that affects the faculties in any way contrary to safety. The safest rule is not to fly as a crewmember while taking any medication, unless approved to do so by the FAA. d. Alcohol. 1. Extensive research has provided a number of facts about the hazards of alcohol consumption and flying. As little as one ounce of liquor, one bottle of beer or four ounces of wine can impair flying skills, with the alcohol consumed in these drinks being detectable in the breath and blood for at least 3 hours. Even after the body completely destroys a moderate amount of alcohol, a pilot can still be severely AIM 2/14/08 8-1-2 Fitness for Flight impaired for many hours by hangover. There is simply no way of increasing the destruction of alcohol or alleviating a hangover. Alcohol also renders a pilot much more susceptible to disorienta- tion and hypoxia. 2. A consistently high alcohol related fatal aircraft accident rate serves to emphasize that alcohol and flying are a potentially lethal combination. The CFRs prohibit pilots from performing crewmember duties within 8 hours after drinking any alcoholic beverage or while under the influence of alcohol. However, due to the slow destruction of alcohol, a pilot may still be under influence 8 hours after drinking a moderate amount of alcohol. Therefore, an excellent rule is to allow at least 12 to 24 hours between “bottle and throttle,” depending on the amount of alcoholic beverage consumed. e. Fatigue. 1. Fatigue continues to be one of the most treacherous hazards to flight safety, as it may not be apparent to a pilot until serious errors are made. Fatigue is best described as either acute (short-term) or chronic (long-term). 2. A normal occurrence of everyday living, acute fatigue is the tiredness felt after long periods of physical and mental strain, including strenuous muscular effort, immobility, heavy mental workload, strong emotional pressure, monotony, and lack of sleep. Consequently, coordination and alertness, so vital to safe pilot performance, can be reduced. Acute fatigue is prevented by adequate rest and sleep, as well as by regular exercise and proper nutrition. 3. Chronic fatigue occurs when there is not enough time for full recovery between episodes of acute fatigue. Performance continues to fall off, and judgment becomes impaired so that unwarranted risks may be taken. Recovery from chronic fatigue requires a prolonged period of rest. f. Stress. 1. Stress from the pressures of everyday living can impair pilot performance, often in very subtle ways. Difficulties, particularly at work, can occupy thought processes enough to markedly decrease alertness. Distraction can so interfere with judgment that unwarranted risks are taken, such as flying into deteriorating weather conditions to keep on schedule. Stress and fatigue (see above) can be an extremely hazardous combination. 2. Most pilots do not leave stress “on the ground.” Therefore, when more than usual difficul- ties are being experienced, a pilot should consider delaying flight until these difficulties are satisfac- torily resolved. g. Emotion. Certain emotionally upsetting events, including a serious argument, death of a family member, separation or divorce, loss of job, and financial catastrophe, can render a pilot unable to fly an aircraft safely. The emotions of anger, depression, and anxiety from such events not only decrease alertness but also may lead to taking risks that border on self-destruction. Any pilot who experiences an emotionally upsetting event should not fly until satisfactorily recovered from it. h. Personal Checklist. Aircraft accident statis- tics show that pilots should be conducting preflight checklists on themselves as well as their aircraft for pilot impairment contributes to many more accidents than failures of aircraft systems. A personal checklist, which includes all of the categories of pilot impairment as discussed in this section, that can be easily committed to memory is being distributed by the FAA in the form of a wallet-sized card. i. PERSONAL CHECKLIST. I'm physically and mentally safe to fly; not being impaired by: Illness Medication Stress Alcohol Fatigue Emotion AIM 2/14/08 8-1-3 Fitness for Flight

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8-1-2. Effects of Altitude a. Hypoxia. 1. Hypoxia is a state of oxygen deficiency in the body sufficient to impair functions of the brain and other organs. Hypoxia from exposure to altitude is due only to the reduced barometric pressures encountered at altitude, for the concentration of oxygen in the atmosphere remains about 21 percent from the ground out to space. 2. Although a deterioration in night vision occurs at a cabin pressure altitude as low as 5,000_feet, other significant effects of altitude hypoxia usually do not occur in the normal healthy pilot below 12,000 feet. From 12,000 to 15,000 feet of altitude, judgment, memory, alertness, coordina- tion and ability to make calculations are impaired, and headache, drowsiness, dizziness and either a sense of well-being (euphoria) or belligerence occur. The effects appear following increasingly shorter periods of exposure to increasing altitude. In fact, pilot performance can seriously deteriorate within 15_minutes at 15,000 feet.

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3. At cabin pressure altitudes above 15,000 feet, the periphery of the visual field grays out to a point where only central vision remains (tunnel vision). A blue coloration (cyanosis) of the fingernails and lips develops. The ability to take corrective and protective action is lost in 20 to 30 minutes at 18,000 feet and 5_to 12 minutes at 20,000 feet, followed soon thereafter by unconsciousness.

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4. The altitude at which significant effects of hypoxia occur can be lowered by a number of factors. Carbon monoxide inhaled in smoking or from exhaust fumes, lowered hemoglobin (anemia), and certain medications can reduce the oxygen-carrying capacity of the blood to the degree that the amount of oxygen provided to body tissues will already be equivalent to the oxygen provided to the tissues when exposed to a cabin pressure altitude of several thousand feet. Small amounts of alcohol and low doses of certain drugs, such as antihistamines, tranquilizers, sedatives and analgesics can, through their depressant action, render the brain much more susceptible to hypoxia. Extreme heat and cold, fever, and anxiety increase the body's demand for oxygen, and hence its susceptibility to hypoxia.

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5. The effects of hypoxia are usually quite difficult to recognize, especially when they occur gradually. Since symptoms of hypoxia do not vary in an individual, the ability to recognize hypoxia can be greatly improved by experiencing and witnessing the effects of hypoxia during an altitude chamber “flight.” The FAA provides this opportunity through aviation physiology training, which is conducted at the FAA Civil Aeromedical Institute and at many military facilities across the U.S. To attend the Physiological Training Program at the Civil Aeromedical Institute, Mike Monroney Aeronautical Center, Oklahoma City, OK, contact by telephone (405) 954-6212, or by writing Aerospace Medical Education Division, AAM-400, CAMI, Mike Monroney Aeronautical Center, P.O. Box 25082, Oklahoma_City, OK 73125. NOTE- To attend the physiological training program at one of the military installations having the training capability, an application form and a fee must be submitted. Full particulars about location, fees, scheduling procedures, course content, individual requirements, etc., are con- tained in the Physiological Training Application, Form Number AC 3150-7, which is obtained by contacting the accident prevention specialist or the office forms manager in the nearest FAA office.

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6. Hypoxia is prevented by heeding factors that reduce tolerance to altitude, by enriching the inspired air with oxygen from an appropriate oxygen system, and by maintaining a comfortable, safe cabin pressure altitude. For optimum protection, pilots are encouraged to use supplemental oxygen above 10,000 feet during the day, and above 5,000 feet at night. The CFRs require that at the minimum, flight crew be provided with and use supplemental oxygen after 30 minutes of exposure to cabin pressure altitudes between 12,500 and 14,000 feet and immediately on exposure to cabin pressure altitudes above 14,000 feet. Every occupant of the aircraft must be provided with supplemental oxygen at cabin pressure altitudes above 15,000 feet. b. Ear Block. 1. As the aircraft cabin pressure decreases during ascent, the expanding air in the middle ear pushes the eustachian tube open, and by escaping down it to the nasal passages, equalizes in pressure with the cabin pressure. But during descent, the pilot must periodically open the eustachian tube to equalize pressure. This can be accomplished by swallowing, yawning, tensing muscles in the throat, or if these do not work, by a combination of closing AIM 2/14/08