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8-1-4 Fitness for Flight the mouth, pinching the nose closed, and attempting to blow through the nostrils (Valsalva maneuver). 2. Either an upper respiratory infection, such as a cold or sore throat, or a nasal allergic condition can produce enough congestion around the eustachian tube to make equalization difficult. Consequently, the difference in pressure between the middle ear and aircraft cabin can build up to a level that will hold the eustachian tube closed, making equalization difficult if not impossible. The problem is commonly referred to as an “ear block.” 3. An ear block produces severe ear pain and loss of hearing that can last from several hours to several days. Rupture of the ear drum can occur in flight or after landing. Fluid can accumulate in the middle ear and become infected. 4. An ear block is prevented by not flying with an upper respiratory infection or nasal allergic condition. Adequate protection is usually not provided by decongestant sprays or drops to reduce congestion around the eustachian tubes. Oral decongestants have side effects that can significantly impair pilot performance.

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5. If an ear block does not clear shortly after landing, a physician should be consulted. c. Sinus Block. 1. During ascent and descent, air pressure in the sinuses equalizes with the aircraft cabin pressure through small openings that connect the sinuses to the nasal passages. Either an upper respiratory infection, such as a cold or sinusitis, or a nasal allergic condition can produce enough congestion around an opening to slow equalization, and as the difference in pressure between the sinus and cabin mounts, eventually plug the opening. This “sinus block” occurs most frequently during descent. 2. A sinus block can occur in the frontal sinuses, located above each eyebrow, or in the maxillary sinuses, located in each upper cheek. It will usually produce excruciating pain over the sinus area. A maxillary sinus block can also make the upper teeth ache. Bloody mucus may discharge from the nasal passages.

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3. A sinus block is prevented by not flying with an upper respiratory infection or nasal allergic condition. Adequate protection is usually not provided by decongestant sprays or drops to reduce congestion around the sinus openings. Oral decon- gestants have side effects that can impair pilot performance. 4. If a sinus block does not clear shortly after landing, a physician should be consulted. d. Decompression Sickness After Scuba Diving. 1. A pilot or passenger who intends to fly after scuba diving should allow the body sufficient time to rid itself of excess nitrogen absorbed during diving. If not, decompression sickness due to evolved gas can occur during exposure to low altitude and create a serious inflight emergency.

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2. The recommended waiting time before going to flight altitudes of up to 8,000 feet is at least 12_hours after diving which has not required controlled ascent (nondecompression stop diving), and at least 24 hours after diving which has required controlled ascent (decompression stop diving). The waiting time before going to flight altitudes above 8,000 feet should be at least 24 hours after any SCUBA dive. These recommended altitudes are actual flight altitudes above mean sea level (AMSL) and not pressurized cabin altitudes. This takes into consideration the risk of decompression of the aircraft during flight. 8-1-3. Hyperventilation in Flight a. Hyperventilation, or an abnormal increase in the volume of air breathed in and out of the lungs, can occur subconsciously when a stressful situation is encountered in flight. As hyperventilation “blows off” excessive carbon dioxide from the body, a pilot can experience symptoms of lightheadedness, suffocation, drowsiness, tingling in the extremities, and coolness and react to them with even greater hyperventilation. Incapacitation can eventually result from incoordination, disorientation, and painful muscle spasms. Finally, unconsciousness can occur. b. The symptoms of hyperventilation subside within a few minutes after the rate and depth of breathing are consciously brought back under control. The buildup of carbon dioxide in the body can be hastened by controlled breathing in and out of a paper bag held over the nose and mouth. AIM 2/14/08 8-1-5 Fitness for Flight c. Early symptoms of hyperventilation and hypoxia are similar. Moreover, hyperventilation and hypoxia can occur at the same time. Therefore, if a pilot is using an oxygen system when symptoms are experienced, the oxygen regulator should immediate- ly be set to deliver 100 percent oxygen, and then the system checked to assure that it has been functioning effectively before giving attention to rate and depth of breathing. 8-1-4. Carbon Monoxide Poisoning in Flight a. Carbon monoxide is a colorless, odorless, and tasteless gas contained in exhaust fumes. When breathed even in minute quantities over a period of time, it can significantly reduce the ability of the blood to carry oxygen. Consequently, effects of hypoxia occur. b. Most heaters in light aircraft work by air flowing over the manifold. Use of these heaters while exhaust fumes are escaping through manifold cracks and seals is responsible every year for several nonfatal and fatal aircraft accidents from carbon monoxide poisoning. c. A pilot who detects the odor of exhaust or experiences symptoms of headache, drowsiness, or dizziness while using the heater should suspect carbon monoxide poisoning, and immediately shut off the heater and open air vents. If symptoms are severe or continue after landing, medical treatment should be sought. 8-1-5. Illusions in Flight a. Introduction. Many different illusions can be experienced in flight. Some can lead to spatial disorientation. Others can lead to landing errors. Illusions rank among the most common factors cited as contributing to fatal aircraft accidents. b. Illusions Leading to Spatial Disorientation. 1. Various complex motions and forces and certain visual scenes encountered in flight can create illusions of motion and position. Spatial disorienta- tion from these illusions can be prevented only by visual reference to reliable, fixed points on the ground or to flight instruments. 2. The leans. An abrupt correction of a banked attitude, which has been entered too slowly to stimulate the motion sensing system in the inner ear, can create the illusion of banking in the opposite direction. The disoriented pilot will roll the aircraft back into its original dangerous attitude, or if level flight is maintained, will feel compelled to lean in the perceived vertical plane until this illusion subsides. (a) Coriolis illusion. An abrupt head move- ment in a prolonged constant-rate turn that has ceased stimulating the motion sensing system can create the illusion of rotation or movement in an entirely different axis. The disoriented pilot will maneuver the aircraft into a dangerous attitude in an attempt to stop rotation. This most overwhelming of all illusions in flight may be prevented by not making sudden, extreme head movements, particularly while making prolonged constant-rate turns under IFR conditions. (b) Graveyard spin. A proper recovery from a spin that has ceased stimulating the motion sensing system can create the illusion of spinning in the opposite direction. The disoriented pilot will return the aircraft to its original spin. (c) Graveyard spiral. An observed loss of altitude during a coordinated constant-rate turn that has ceased stimulating the motion sensing system can create the illusion of being in a descent with the wings level. The disoriented pilot will pull back on the controls, tightening the spiral and increasing the loss of altitude. (d) Somatogravic illusion. A rapid accel- eration during takeoff can create the illusion of being in a nose up attitude. The disoriented pilot will push the aircraft into a nose low, or dive attitude. A rapid deceleration by a quick reduction of the throttles can have the opposite effect, with the disoriented pilot pulling the aircraft into a nose up, or stall attitude. (e) Inversion illusion. An abrupt change from climb to straight and level flight can create the illusion of tumbling backwards. The disoriented pilot will push the aircraft abruptly into a nose low attitude, possibly intensifying this illusion. (f) Elevator illusion. An abrupt upward vertical acceleration, usually by an updraft, can create the illusion of being in a climb. The disoriented pilot will push the aircraft into a nose low attitude. An abrupt downward vertical acceleration, usually by a downdraft, has the opposite effect, with the disoriented pilot pulling the aircraft into a nose up attitude. AIM 2/14/08 8-1-6 Fitness for Flight (g) False horizon. Sloping cloud forma- tions, an obscured horizon, a dark scene spread with ground lights and stars, and certain geometric patterns of ground light can create illusions of not being aligned correctly with the actual horizon. The disoriented pilot will place the aircraft in a dangerous attitude. (h) Autokinesis. In the dark, a static light will appear to move about when stared at for many seconds. The disoriented pilot will lose control of the aircraft in attempting to align it with the light. 3. Illusions Leading to Landing Errors. (a) Various surface features and atmospheric conditions encountered in landing can create illusions of incorrect height above and distance from the runway threshold. Landing errors from these illusions can be prevented by anticipating them during approaches, aerial visual inspection of unfamiliar airports before landing, using electronic glide slope or VASI systems when available, and maintaining optimum proficiency in landing procedures. (b) Runway width illusion. A narrower- than-usual runway can create the illusion that the aircraft is at a higher altitude than it actually is. The pilot who does not recognize this illusion will fly a lower approach, with the risk of striking objects along the approach path or landing short. A wider-than- usual runway can have the opposite effect, with the risk of leveling out high and landing hard or overshooting the runway. (c) Runway and terrain slopes illusion. An upsloping runway, upsloping terrain, or both, can create the illusion that the aircraft is at a higher altitude than it actually is. The pilot who does not recognize this illusion will fly a lower approach. A downsloping runway, downsloping approach terrain, or both, can have the opposite effect. (d) Featureless terrain illusion. An absence of ground features, as when landing over water, darkened areas, and terrain made featureless by snow, can create the illusion that the aircraft is at a higher altitude than it actually is. The pilot who does not recognize this illusion will fly a lower approach. (e) Atmospheric illusions. Rain on the windscreen can create the illusion of greater height, and atmospheric haze the illusion of being at a greater distance from the runway. The pilot who does not recognize these illusions will fly a lower approach. Penetration of fog can create the illusion of pitching up. The pilot who does not recognize this illusion will steepen the approach, often quite abruptly. (f) Ground lighting illusions. Lights along a straight path, such as a road, and even lights on moving trains can be mistaken for runway and approach lights. Bright runway and approach lighting systems, especially where few lights illuminate the surrounding terrain, may create the illusion of less distance to the runway. The pilot who does not recognize this illusion will fly a higher approach. Conversely, the pilot overflying terrain which has few lights to provide height cues may make a lower than normal approach. 8-1-6. Vision in Flight a. Introduction. Of the body senses, vision is the most important for safe flight. Major factors that determine how effectively vision can be used are the level of illumination and the technique of scanning the sky for other aircraft. b. Vision Under Dim and Bright Illumination. 1. Under conditions of dim illumination, small print and colors on aeronautical charts and aircraft instruments become unreadable unless adequate cockpit lighting is available. Moreover, another aircraft must be much closer to be seen unless its navigation lights are on. 2. In darkness, vision becomes more sensitive to light, a process called dark adaptation. Although exposure to total darkness for at least 30 minutes is required for complete dark adaptation, a pilot can achieve a moderate degree of dark adaptation within 20 minutes under dim red cockpit lighting. Since red light severely distorts colors, especially on aeronauti- cal charts, and can cause serious difficulty in focusing the eyes on objects inside the aircraft, its use is advisable only where optimum outside night vision capability is necessary. Even so, white cockpit lighting must be available when needed for map and instrument reading, especially under IFR conditions. Dark adaptation is impaired by exposure to cabin pressure altitudes above 5,000 feet, carbon monoxide inhaled in smoking and from exhaust fumes, deficiency of Vitamin A in the diet, and by prolonged exposure to bright sunlight. Since any degree of dark adaptation is lost within a few seconds of viewing a AIM 2/14/08 8-1-7 Fitness for Flight bright light, a pilot should close one eye when using a light to preserve some degree of night vision. 3. Excessive illumination, especially from light reflected off the canopy, surfaces inside the aircraft, clouds, water, snow, and desert terrain, can produce glare, with uncomfortable squinting, watering of the eyes, and even temporary blindness. Sunglasses for protection from glare should absorb at least 85_percent of visible light (15 percent transmittance) and all colors equally (neutral transmittance), with negligible image distortion from refractive and prismatic errors. c. Scanning for Other Aircraft. 1. Scanning the sky for other aircraft is a key factor in collision avoidance. It should be used continuously by the pilot and copilot (or right seat passenger) to cover all areas of the sky visible from the cockpit. Although pilots must meet specific visual acuity requirements, the ability to read an eye chart does not ensure that one will be able to efficiently spot other aircraft. Pilots must develop an effective scanning technique which maximizes one's visual capabilities. The probability of spotting a potential collision threat obviously increases with the time spent looking outside the cockpit. Thus, one must use timesharing techniques to efficiently scan the surrounding airspace while monitoring instruments as well. 2. While the eyes can observe an approximate 200 degree arc of the horizon at one glance, only a very small center area called the fovea, in the rear of the eye, has the ability to send clear, sharply focused messages to the brain. All other visual information that is not processed directly through the fovea will be of less detail. An aircraft at a distance of 7 miles which appears in sharp focus within the foveal center of vision would have to be as close as 7 /10 of a mile in order to be recognized if it were outside of foveal vision. Because the eyes can focus only on this narrow viewing area, effective scanning is accom- plished with a series of short, regularly spaced eye movements that bring successive areas of the sky into the central visual field. Each movement should not exceed 10 degrees, and each area should be observed for at least 1 second to enable detection. Although horizontal back-and-forth eye movements seem preferred by most pilots, each pilot should develop a scanning pattern that is most comfortable and then adhere to it to assure optimum scanning. 3. Studies show that the time a pilot spends on visual tasks inside the cabin should represent no more that 1 /4 to 1 /3 of the scan time outside, or no more than 4 to 5 seconds on the instrument panel for every 16_seconds outside. Since the brain is already trained to process sight information that is presented from left to right, one may find it easier to start scanning over the left shoulder and proceed across the windshield to the right. 4. Pilots should realize that their eyes may require several seconds to refocus when switching views between items in the cockpit and distant objects. The eyes will also tire more quickly when forced to adjust to distances immediately after close-up focus, as required for scanning the instrument panel. Eye fatigue can be reduced by looking from the instrument panel to the left wing past the wing tip to the center of the first scan quadrant when beginning the exterior scan. After having scanned from left to right, allow the eyes to return to the cabin along the right wing from its tip inward. Once back inside, one should automatically com- mence the panel scan. 5. Effective scanning also helps avoid “empty- field myopia.” This condition usually occurs when flying above the clouds or in a haze layer that provides nothing specific to focus on outside the aircraft. This causes the eyes to relax and seek a comfortable focal distance which may range from 10_to 30 feet. For the pilot, this means looking without seeing, which is dangerous. 8-1-7. Aerobatic Flight a. Pilots planning to engage in aerobatics should be aware of the physiological stresses associated with accelerative forces during aerobatic maneuvers. Many prospective aerobatic trainees enthusiastically enter aerobatic instruction but find their first experiences with G forces to be unanticipated and very uncomfortable. To minimize or avoid potential adverse effects, the aerobatic instructor and trainee must have a basic understanding of the physiology of G force adaptation. b. Forces experienced with a rapid push-over maneuver result in the blood and body organs being displaced toward the head. Depending on forces AIM 2/14/08 8-1-8 Fitness for Flight involved and individual tolerance, a pilot may experience discomfort, headache, “red-out,” and even unconsciousness. c. Forces experienced with a rapid pull-up maneuver result in the blood and body organ displacement toward the lower part of the body away from the head. Since the brain requires continuous blood circulation for an adequate oxygen supply, there is a physiologic limit to the time the pilot can tolerate higher forces before losing consciousness. As the blood circulation to the brain decreases as a result of forces involved, a pilot will experience “narrowing” of visual fields, “gray-out,” “black- out,” and unconsciousness. Even a brief loss of consciousness in a maneuver can lead to improper control movement causing structural failure of the aircraft or collision with another object or terrain. d. In steep turns, the centrifugal forces tend to push the pilot into the seat, thereby resulting in blood and body organ displacement toward the lower part of the body as in the case of rapid pull-up maneuvers and with the same physiologic effects and symptoms. e. Physiologically, humans progressively adapt to imposed strains and stress, and with practice, any maneuver will have decreasing effect. Tolerance to G_forces is dependent on human physiology and the individual pilot. These factors include the skeletal anatomy, the cardiovascular architecture, the nervous system, the quality of the blood, the general physical state, and experience and recency of exposure. The pilot should consult an Aviation Medical Examiner prior to aerobatic training and be aware that poor physical condition can reduce tolerance to accelera- tive forces. f. The above information provides pilots with a brief summary of the physiologic effects of G forces. It does not address methods of “counteracting” these effects. There are numerous references on the subject of G forces during aerobatics available to pilots. Among these are “G Effects on the Pilot During Aerobatics,” FAA-AM-72-28, and “G Incapacita- tion in Aerobatic Pilots: A Flight Hazard” FAA-AM-82-13. These are available from the National Technical Information Service, Springfield, Virginia 22161. REFERENCE- FAA AC 91-61, A Hazard in Aerobatics: Effects of G-forces on Pilots. 8-1-8. Judgment Aspects of Collision Avoidance a. Introduction. The most important aspects of vision and the techniques to scan for other aircraft are described in paragraph 8-1-6, Vision in Flight. Pilots should also be familiar with the following informa- tion to reduce the possibility of mid-air collisions. b. Determining Relative Altitude. Use the horizon as a reference point. If the other aircraft is above the horizon, it is probably on a higher flight path. If the aircraft appears to be below the horizon, it is probably flying at a lower altitude. c. Taking Appropriate Action. Pilots should be familiar with rules on right-of-way, so if an aircraft is on an obvious collision course, one can take immediate evasive action, preferably in compliance with applicable Federal Aviation Regulations. d. Consider Multiple Threats. The decision to climb, descend, or turn is a matter of personal judgment, but one should anticipate that the other pilot may also be making a quick maneuver. Watch the other aircraft during the maneuver and begin your scanning again immediately since there may be other aircraft in the area. e. Collision Course Targets. Any aircraft that appears to have no relative motion and stays in one scan quadrant is likely to be on a collision course. Also, if a target shows no lateral or vertical motion, but increases in size, take evasive action. f. Recognize High Hazard Areas. 1. Airways, especially near VORs, and Class_B, Class C, Class D, and Class E surface areas are places where aircraft tend to cluster. 2. Remember, most collisions occur during days when the weather is good. Being in a “radar environment” still requires vigilance to avoid collisions. g. Cockpit Management. Studying maps, checklists, and manuals before flight, with other proper preflight planning; e.g., noting necessary radio frequencies and organizing cockpit materials, can reduce the amount of time required to look at these items during flight, permitting more scan time. h. Windshield Conditions. Dirty or bug- smeared windshields can greatly reduce the ability of pilots to see other aircraft. Keep a clean windshield. AIM 2/14/08 8-1-9 Fitness for Flight i. Visibility Conditions. Smoke, haze, dust, rain, and flying towards the sun can also greatly reduce the ability to detect targets. j. Visual Obstructions in the Cockpit. 1. Pilots need to move their heads to see around blind spots caused by fixed aircraft structures, such as door posts, wings, etc. It will be necessary at times to maneuver the aircraft; e.g., lift a wing, to facilitate seeing. 2. Pilots must insure curtains and other cockpit objects; e.g., maps on glare shield, are removed and stowed during flight. k. Lights On. 1. Day or night, use of exterior lights can greatly increase the conspicuity of any aircraft. 2. Keep interior lights low at night. l. ATC Support. ATC facilities often provide radar traffic advisories on a workload-permitting basis. Flight through Class C and Class D airspace requires communication with ATC. Use this support whenever possible or when required. AIM 2/14/08 9-1-1 Types of Charts Available Chapter 9. Aeronautical Charts and Related Publications Section 1. Types of Charts Available 9-1-1. General Civil aeronautical charts for the U.S. and its territories, and possessions are produced by the National Aeronautical Charting Office (NACO), http://www.naco.faa.gov, which is part of FAA's office of Technical Operations Aviation Systems Standards. 9-1-2. Obtaining Aeronautical Charts a. Most charts and publications described in this Chapter can be obtained by subscription or one-time sales from: National Aeronautical Charting Office (NACO) Distribution Division, Federal Aviation Administration 6303 Ivy Lane, Suite 400 Greenbelt, MD 20770 Telephone: 1-800-638-8972 (Toll free within U.S.) 301-436-8301/6990 301-436-6829 (FAX) e-mail: 9-AMC-Chartsales@faa.gov b. Public sales of charts and publications are also available through a network of FAA chart agents primarily located at or near major civil airports. A listing of products and agents is printed in the free FAA catalog, Aeronautical Charts and Related Products. (FAA Stock No. ACATSET). A free quarterly bulletin, Dates of Latest Editions, (FAA Stock No. 5318), is also available from NACO. 9-1-3. Selected Charts and Products Available VFR Navigation Charts IFR Navigation Charts Planning Charts Supplementary Charts and Publications Digital Products 9-1-4. General Description of each Chart Series a. VFR Navigation Charts. 1. Sectional Aeronautical Charts. Sectional Charts are designed for visual navigation of slow to medium speed aircraft. The topographic information consists of contour lines, shaded relief, drainage patterns, and an extensive selection of visual checkpoints and landmarks used for flight under VFR. Cultural features include cities and towns, roads, railroads, and other distinct landmarks. The aeronautical information includes visual and radio aids to navigation, airports, controlled airspace, special-use airspace, obstructions, and related data. Scale 1 inch = 6.86nm/1:500,000. 60 x 20 inches folded to 5 x 10 inches. Revised semiannually, except most Alaskan charts are revised annually. (See FIG 9-1-1 and FIG 9-1-11.) 2. VFR Terminal Area Charts (TAC). TACs depict the airspace designated as Class B airspace. While similar to sectional charts, TACs have more detail because the scale is larger. The TAC should be used by pilots intending to operate to or from airfields within or near Class B or Class C airspace. Areas with TAC coverage are indicated by a on the Sectional Chart indexes. Scale 1 inch = 3.43nm/1:250,000. Charts are revised semiannually, except Puerto Rico-Virgin Islands revised annually. (See FIG 9-1-1 and FIG 9-1-11.) 3. World Aeronautical Chart (WAC). WACs cover land areas for navigation by moderate speed aircraft operating at high altitudes. Included are city tints, principal roads, railroads, distinctive land- marks, drainage patterns, and relief. Aeronautical information includes visual and radio aids to navigation, airports, airways, special-use airspace, and obstructions. Because of a smaller scale, WACs do not show as much detail as sectional or TACs, and; therefore, are not recommended for exclusive use by pilots of low speed, low altitude aircraft. Scale 1_inch_= 13.7nm/1:1,000,000. 60 x 20 inches folded to 5 x 10 inches. WACs are revised annually, except for a few in Alaska and the Caribbean, which are revised biennially. (See FIG 9-1-12 and FIG 9-1-13.) AIM 2/14/08 9-1-2 Types of Charts Available FIG 9-1-1 Sectional and VFR Terminal Area Charts for the Conterminous U.S., Hawaii, Puerto Rico, and Virgin Islands 4. U.S. Gulf Coast VFR Aeronautical Chart. The Gulf Coast Chart is designed primarily for helicopter operation in the Gulf of Mexico area. Information depicted includes offshore mineral leasing areas and blocks, oil drilling platforms, and high density helicopter activity areas. Scale 1 inch = 13.7nm/1:1,000,000. 55 x 27 inches folded to 5_x_10_inches. Revised annually. 5. Grand Canyon VFR Aeronautical Chart. Covers the Grand Canyon National Park area and is designed to promote aviation safety, flight free zones, and facilitate VFR navigation in this popular area. The chart contains aeronautical information for general aviation VFR pilots on one side and commercial VFR air tour operators on the other side. 6. Helicopter Route Charts. A three-color chart series which shows current aeronautical information useful to helicopter pilots navigating in areas with high concentrations of helicopter activity. Information depicted includes helicopter routes, four classes of heliports with associated frequency and lighting capabilities, NAVAIDs, and obstructions. In addition, pictorial symbols, roads, and easily identified geographical features are portrayed. Helicopter charts have a longer life span than other chart products and may be current for several years. All new editions of these charts are printed on a durable plastic material. Helicopter Route Charts are updated as requested by the FAA. Scale 1 inch = 1.71nm/1:125,000. 34 x 30 inches folded to 5_x_10_inches. b. IFR Navigation Charts. 1. IFR Enroute Low Altitude Charts (Conterminous U.S. and Alaska). Enroute low altitude charts provide aeronautical information for navigation under IFR conditions below 18,000 feet MSL. This four-color chart series includes airways; limits of controlled airspace; VHF NAVAIDs with frequency, identification, channel, geographic coor- dinates; airports with terminal air/ground communications; minimum en route and obstruction clearance altitudes; airway distances; reporting points; special use airspace; and military training routes. Scales vary from 1 inch = 5nm to 1 inch = 20nm. 50 x 20 inches folded to 5 x 10 inches. Charts revised every 56 days. Area charts show congested terminal areas at a large scale. They are included with subscriptions to any conterminous U.S. Set Low (Full set, East or West sets). (See FIG 9-1-2 and FIG 9-1-4.) AIM 2/14/08 9-1-3 Types of Charts Available FIG 9-1-2 Enroute Low Altitude Instrument Charts for the Conterminous U.S. (Includes Area Charts) FIG 9-1-3 Enroute High Altitude Charts for the Conterminous U.S. AIM 2/14/08 9-1-4 Types of Charts Available 2. IFR Enroute High Altitude Charts (Conterminous U.S. and Alaska). Enroute high altitude charts are designed for navigation at or above 18,000_feet MSL. This four-color chart series includes the jet route structure; VHF NAVAIDs with frequency, identification, channel, geographic coor- dinates; selected airports; reporting points. Scales vary from 1 inch = 45nm to 1 inch = 18nm. 55 x 20 inches folded to 5 x 10 inches. Revised every 56 days. (See FIG 9-1-3 and FIG 9-1-5.) FIG 9-1-4 Alaska Enroute Low Altitude Chart FIG 9-1-5 Alaskan Enroute High Altitude Chart AIM 2/14/08 9-1-5 Types of Charts Available 3. U.S. Terminal Procedures Publication (TPP). TPPs are published in 24 loose-leaf or perfect bound volumes covering the conterminous U.S., Puerto Rico and the Virgin Islands. A Change Notice is published at the midpoint between revisions in bound volume format and is available on the internet for free download at the NACO web site. (See FIG 9-1-9.) The TPPs include: (a) Instrument Approach Procedure (IAP) Charts. IAP charts portray the aeronautical data that is required to execute instrument approaches to airports. Each chart depicts the IAP, all related navigation data, communications information, and an airport sketch. Each procedure is designated for use with a specific electronic navigational aid, such as ILS, VOR, NDB, RNAV, etc. (b) Instrument Departure Procedure (DP) Charts. DP charts are designed to expedite clearance delivery and to facilitate transition between takeoff and en route operations. They furnish pilots' departure routing clearance information in graphic and textual form. (c) Standard Terminal Arrival (STAR) Charts. STAR charts are designed to expedite ATC arrival procedures and to facilitate transition between en route and instrument approach operations. They depict preplanned IFR ATC arrival procedures in graphic and textual form. Each STAR procedure is presented as a separate chart and may serve either a single airport or more than one airport in a given geographic area. (d) Airport Diagrams. Full page airport diagrams are designed to assist in the movement of ground traffic at locations with complex runway/taxi- way configurations and provide information for updating geodetic position navigational systems aboard aircraft. Airport diagrams are available for free download at the NACO website. 4. Alaska Terminal Procedures Publication. This publication contains all terminal flight proce- dures for civil and military aviation in Alaska. Included are IAP charts, DP charts, STAR charts, airport diagrams, radar minimums, and supplementa- ry support data such as IFR alternate minimums, take-off minimums, rate of descent tables, rate of climb tables and inoperative components tables. Volume is 5-3/8 x 8-1/4 inch top bound. Publication revised every 56 days with provisions for a Terminal Change Notice, as required. c. Planning Charts. 1. U.S. IFR/VFR Low Altitude Planning Chart. This chart is designed for prefight and en_route flight planning for IFR/VFR flights. Depiction includes low altitude airways and mileage, NAVAIDs, airports, special use airspace, cities, times zones, major drainage, a directory of airports with their airspace classification, and a mileage table showing great circle distances between major airports. Scale 1 inch = 47nm/1:3,400,000. Chart revised annually, and is available either folded or unfolded for wall mounting. (See FIG 9-1-6.) 2. Gulf of Mexico and Caribbean Planning Chart. This is a VFR planning chart on the reverse side of the Puerto Rico - Virgin Islands VFR Terminal Area Chart. Information shown includes mileage between airports of entry, a selection of special use airspace and a directory of airports with their available services. Scale 1 inch = 85nm/1:6,192,178. 60 x 20 inches folded to 5 x 10 inches. Chart revised annually. (See FIG 9-1-6.) FIG 9-1-6 Planning Charts 3. Charted VFR Flyway Planning Charts. This chart is printed on the reverse side of selected TAC charts. The coverage is the same as the associated TAC. Flyway planning charts depict flight paths and altitudes recommended for use to bypass high traffic areas. Ground references are provided as AIM 2/14/08 9-1-6 Types of Charts Available a guide for visual orientation. Flyway planning charts are designed for use in conjunction with TACs and sectional charts and are not to be used for navigation. Chart scale 1_inch_= 3.43nm/1:250,000. d. Supplementary Charts and Publications. 1. Airport/Facility Directory (A/FD). This 7-volume booklet series contains data on airports, seaplane bases, heliports, NAVAIDs, communica- tions data, weather data sources, airspace, special notices, and operational procedures. Coverage includes the conterminous U.S., Puerto Rico, and the Virgin Islands. The A/FD shows data that cannot be readily depicted in graphic form; e.g., airport hours of operations, types of fuel available, runway widths, lighting codes, etc. The A/FD also provides a means for pilots to update visual charts between edition dates (A/FD is published every 56 days while sectional and Terminal Area Charts are generally revised every six months). The VFR Chart Update Bulletins are available for free download from the NACO web site. Volumes are side-bound 5-3/8 x 8-1/4 inches. (See FIG 9-1-10.) 2. Supplement Alaska. This is a civil/military flight information publication issued by FAA every 56 days. It is a single volume booklet designed for use with appropriate IFR or VFR charts. The Supplement Alaska contains an A/FD, airport sketches, commu- nications data, weather data sources, airspace, listing of navigational facilities, and special notices and procedures. Volume is side-bound 5-3/8 x 8-1/4_inches. 3. Chart Supplement Pacific. This supple- ment is designed for use with appropriate VFR or IFR enroute charts. Included in this one-volume booklet are the A/FD, communications data, weather data sources, airspace, navigational facilities, special notices, and Pacific area procedures. IAP charts, DP charts, STAR charts, airport diagrams, radar minimums, and supporting data for the Hawaiian and Pacific Islands are included. The manual is published every 56 days. Volume is side-bound 5-3/8 x 8-1/4_inches. 4. North Pacific Route Charts. These charts are designed for FAA controllers to monitor transoceanic flights. They show established intercon- tinental air routes, including reporting points with geographic positions. Composite Chart: Scale 1_inch_= 164nm/1:12,000,000. 48 x 41-1/2 inches. Area Charts: Scale 1 inch = 95.9nm/1:7,000,000. 52_x 40-1/2 inches. All charts shipped unfolded. Charts revised every 56 days. (See FIG 9-1-8.) 5. North Atlantic Route Chart. Designed for FAA controllers to monitor transatlantic flights, this 5-color chart shows oceanic control areas, coastal navigation aids, oceanic reporting points, and NAVAID geographic coordinates. Full Size Chart: Scale 1 inch = 113.1nm/1:8,250,000. Chart is shipped flat only. Half Size Chart: Scale 1 inch = 150.8nm/1:11,000,000. Chart is 29-3/4 x 20-1/2_inches, shipped folded to 5 x 10 inches only. Chart revised every 56 weeks. (See FIG 9-1-7.) FIG 9-1-7 North Atlantic Route Charts AIM 2/14/08 9-1-7 Types of Charts Available FIG 9-1-8 North Pacific Oceanic Route Charts 6. Airport Obstruction Charts (OC). The OC is a 1:12,000 scale graphic depicting 14 CFR Part_77, Objects Affecting Navigable Airspace, surfaces, a representation of objects that penetrate these surfaces, aircraft movement and apron areas, navigational aids, prominent airport buildings, and a selection of roads and other planimetric detail in the airport vicinity. Also included are tabulations of runway and other operational data.

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7. FAA Aeronautical Chart User's Guide. A_booklet designed to be used as a teaching aid and reference document. It describes the substantial amount of information provided on FAA's aeronauti- cal charts and publications. It includes explanations and illustrations of chart terms and symbols organized by chart type. The users guide is available for free download at the NACO web site. e. Digital Products. 1. The Digital Aeronautical Information CD (DAICD). The DAICD is a combination of the NAVAID Digital Data File, the Digital Chart Supplement, and the Digital Obstacle File on one Compact Disk. These three digital products are no longer sold separately. The files are updated every 56_days and are available by subscription only. (a) The NAVAID Digital Data File. This file contains a current listing of NAVAIDs that are compatible with the National Airspace System. This file contains all NAVAIDs including ILS and its components, in the U.S., Puerto Rico, and the Virgin Islands plus bordering facilities in Canada, Mexico, and the Atlantic and Pacific areas. (b) The Digital Obstacle File. This file describes all obstacles of interest to aviation users in the U.S., with limited coverage of the Pacific, Caribbean, Canada, and Mexico. The obstacles are assigned unique numerical identifiers, accuracy codes, and listed in order of ascending latitude within each state or area. (c) The Digital Aeronautical Chart Supple- ment (DACS). The DACS is specifically designed to provide digital airspace data not otherwise readily available. The supplement includes a Change Notice for IAPFIX.dat at the mid-point between revisions. The Change Notice is available only by free download from the NACO website. The DACS individual data files are: ENHIGH.DAT: High altitude airways (contermi- nous U.S.) ENLOW.DAT: Low altitude airways (conterminous U.S.) IAPFIX.DAT: Selected instrument approach proce- dure NAVAID and fix data. MTRFIX.DAT: Military training routes data. ALHIGH.DAT: Alaska high altitude airways data. ALLOW.DAT: Alaska low altitude airways data. PR.DAT: Puerto Rico airways data. HAWAII.DAT: Hawaii airways data. BAHAMA.DAT: Bahamas routes data. OCEANIC.DAT: Oceanic routes data. STARS.DAT: Standard terminal arrivals data. DP.DAT: Instrument departure procedures data. LOPREF.DAT: Preferred low altitude IFR routes data. HIPREF.DAT: Preferred high altitude IFR routes data. ARF.DAT: Air route radar facilities data. ASR.DAT: Airport surveillance radar facilities data. AIM 2/14/08 9-1-8 Types of Charts Available 2. The National Flight Database (NFD) (ARINC 424 [Ver 13 & 15]). The NFD is a basic digital dataset, modeled to an international standard, which can be used as a basis to support GPS navigation. Initial data elements included are: Airport and Helicopter Records, VHF and NDB Navigation aids, en route waypoints and airways. Additional data elements will be added in subsequent releases to include: departure procedures, standard terminal arrivals, and GPS/RNAV instrument approach procedures. The database is updated every 28 days. The data is available by subscription only and is distributed on CD-ROM or by ftp download. 3. Sectional Raster Aeronautical Charts (SRAC). These digital VFR charts are georeferenced scanned images of FAA sectional charts. Additional digital data may easily be overlaid on the raster image using commonly available Geographic Information System software. Data such as weather, temporary flight restrictions, obstacles, or other geospatial data can be combined with SRAC data to support a variety of needs. Most SRACs are provided in two halves, a north side and a south side. The file resolution is 200 dots per inch and the data is 8-bit color. The data is provided as a GeoTIFF and distributed on DVD-R media. The root mean square error of the transformation will not exceed two pixels. SRACs DVDs are updated every 28 days and are available by subscription only. AIM 2/14/08 9-1-9 Types of Charts Available FIG 9-1-9 U.S. Terminal Publication Volumes AIM 2/14/08 9-1-10 Types of Charts Available FIG 9-1-10 Airport/Facility Directory Geographic Areas FIG 9-1-11 Sectional and VFR Terminal Area Charts for Alaska AIM 2/14/08 9-1-11 Types of Charts Available FIG 9-1-12 World Aeronautical Charts for Alaska AIM 2/14/08 9-1-12 Types of Charts Available FIG 9-1-13 World Aeronautical Charts for the Conterminous U.S. Mexico, and the Caribbean Areas 9-1-5. Where and How to Get Charts of Foreign Areas a. National Imagery and Mapping Agency (NIMA) Products. An FAA catalog of NIMA Public Sale Aeronautical Charts and Publications (FAA Stock No. DMAACATSET), is available from the NACO Distribution Division. The catalog describes available charts and publications primarily covering areas outside the U.S. A free quarterly bulletin, Dates of Latest Editions - NIMA Aeronautical Charts and Publications (FAA Stock No. DADOLE), is also available from NACO. 1. Flight Information Publication (FLIP) Planning Documents. General Planning (GP) Area Planning Area Planning - Special Use Airspace - Planning Charts 2. FLIP Enroute Charts and Chart Supple- ments. Pacific, Australasia, and Antarctica U.S. - IFR and VFR Supplements Flight Information Handbook Caribbean and South America - Low Altitude Caribbean and South America - High Altitude Europe, North Africa, and Middle East - Low Altitude Europe, North Africa, and Middle East - High Altitude Africa Eastern Europe and Asia Area Arrival Charts AIM 2/14/08 9-1-13 Types of Charts Available 3. FLIP Instrument Approach Procedures (IAPs). Africa Canada and North Atlantic Caribbean and South America Eastern Europe and Asia Europe, North Africa, and Middle East Pacific, Australasia, and Antarctica VFR Arrival/Departure Routes - Europe and Korea U.S. 4. Miscellaneous DOD Charts and Products. Aeronautical Chart Updating Manual (CHUM) DOD Weather Plotting Charts (WPC) Tactical Pilotage Charts (TPC) Operational Navigation Charts (ONC) Global Navigation and Planning Charts (GNC) Global LORAN-C Navigation Charts (GLCC) LORAN-C Coastal Navigation Charts (LCNC) Jet Navigation Charts (JNC) and Universal Jet Navigation Charts (JNU) Jet Navigation Charts (JNCA) Aerospace Planning Charts (ASC) Oceanic Planning Charts (OPC) Joint Operations Graphics - Air (JOG-A) Standard Index Charts (SIC) Universal Plotting Sheet (VP-OS) Sight Reduction Tables for Air Navigation (PUB249) Plotting Sheets (VP-30) Dial-Up Electronic CHUM b. Canadian Charts. Information on available Canadian charts and publications may be obtained from designated FAA chart agents or by contacting the: NAV CANADA Aeronautical Publications Sales and Distribution Unit P.O. Box 9840, Station T Ottawa, Ontario K1G 6S8 Canada Telephone: 613-744-6393 or 1-866-731-7827 Fax: 613-744-7120 or 1-866-740-9992 c. Mexican Charts. Information on available Mexican charts and publications may be obtained by contacting: Dirección de Navigacion Aereo Blvd. Puerto Aereo 485 Zona Federal Del Aeropuerto Int'l 15620 Mexico D.F. Mexico d. International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO). A free ICAO Publications and Audio- Visual Training Aids Catalogue is available from: International Civil Aviation Organization ATTN: Document Sales Unit 999 University Street Montreal, Quebec H3C 5H7, Canada Telephone: (514) 954-8022 Fax: (514) 954-6769 E-mail: sales_unit@icao.org Internet:_http://www.icao.org/cgi/goto.pl?icao/en/ sales.htm Sitatex: YULCAYA Telex: 05-24513 AIM 2/14/08 10-1-1 Helicopter IFR Operations Chapter 10. Helicopter Operations Section 1. Helicopter IFR Operations 10-1-1. Helicopter Flight Control Systems a. The certification requirements for helicopters to operate under Instrument Flight Rules (IFR) are contained in 14 CFR Part 27, Airworthiness Standards: Normal Category Rotorcraft, and 14 CFR Part_29, Airworthiness Standards: Transport Category Rotorcraft. To meet these requirements, helicopter manufacturers usually utilize a set of stabilization and/or Automatic Flight Control Systems (AFCSs). b. Typically, these systems fall into the following categories: 1. Aerodynamic surfaces, which impart some stability or control capability not found in the basic VFR configuration. 2. Trim systems, which provide a cyclic centering effect. These systems typically involve a magnetic brake/spring device, and may also be controlled by a four-way switch on the cyclic. This is a system that supports “hands on” flying of the helicopter by the pilot. 3. Stability Augmentation Systems (SASs), which provide short-term rate damping control inputs to increase helicopter stability. Like trim systems, SAS supports “hands on” flying. 4. Attitude Retention Systems (ATTs), which return the helicopter to a selected attitude after a disturbance. Changes in desired attitude can be accomplished usually through a four-way “beep” switch, or by actuating a “force trim” switch on the cyclic, setting the attitude manually, and releasing. Attitude retention may be a SAS function, or may be the basic “hands off” autopilot function. 5. Autopilot Systems (APs), which provide for “hands off” flight along specified lateral and vertical paths, including heading, altitude, vertical speed, navigation tracking, and approach. These systems typically have a control panel for mode selection, and system for indication of mode status. Autopilots may or may not be installed with an associated Flight Director System (FD). Autopilots typically control the helicopter about the roll and pitch axes (cyclic control) but may also include yaw axis (pedal control) and collective control servos. 6. FDs, which provide visual guidance to the pilot to fly specific selected lateral and vertical modes of operation. The visual guidance is typically provided as either a “dual cue” (commonly known as a “cross-pointer”) or “single cue” (commonly known as a “vee-bar”) presentation superimposed over the attitude indicator. Some FDs also include a collective cue. The pilot manipulates the helicopter's controls to satisfy these commands, yielding the desired flight path, or may couple the flight director to the autopilot to perform automatic flight along the desired flight path. Typically, flight director mode control and indication is shared with the autopilot. c. In order to be certificated for IFR operation, a specific helicopter may require the use of one or more of these systems, in any combination. d. In many cases, helicopters are certificated for IFR operations with either one or two pilots. Certain equipment is required to be installed and functional for two pilot operations, and typically, additional equipment is required for single pilot operation. These requirements are usually described in the limitations section of the Rotorcraft Flight Manual (RFM). e. In addition, the RFM also typically defines systems and functions that are required to be in operation or engaged for IFR flight in either the single or two pilot configuration. Often, particularly in two pilot operation, this level of augmentation is less than the full capability of the installed systems. Likewise, single pilot operation may require a higher level of augmentation. AIM 2/14/08 10-1-2 Helicopter IFR Operations f. The RFM also identifies other specific limita- tions associated with IFR flight. Typically, these limitations include, but are not limited to: 1. Minimum equipment required for IFR flight (in some cases, for both single pilot and two pilot operations). 2. Vmini (minimum speed - IFR). NOTE- The manufacturer may also recommend a minimum IFR airspeed during instrument approach. 3. Vnei (never exceed speed - IFR). 4. Maximum approach angle. 5. Weight and center of gravity limits. 6. Aircraft configuration limitations (such as aircraft door positions and external loads). 7. Aircraft system limitations (generators, inverters, etc.). 8. System testing requirements (many avionics and AFCS/AP/FD systems incorporate a self-test feature). 9. Pilot action requirements (such as the pilot must have his/her hands and feet on the controls during certain operations, such as during instrument approach below certain altitudes). g. It is very important that pilots be familiar with the IFR requirements for their particular helicopter. Within the same make, model and series of helicopter, variations in the installed avionics may change the required equipment or the level of augmentation for a particular operation. h. During flight operations, pilots must be aware of the mode of operation of the augmentation systems, and the control logic and functions employed. For example, during an ILS approach using a particular system in the three-cue mode (lateral, vertical and collective cues), the flight director collective cue responds to glideslope deviation, while the horizontal bar of the “crosspointer” responds to airspeed deviations. The same system, while flying an ILS in the two-cue mode, provides for the horizontal bar to respond to glideslope deviations. This concern is particularly significant when operating using two pilots. Pilots should have an established set of procedures and responsibilities for the control of flight director/auto- pilot modes for the various phases of flight. Not only does a full understanding of the system modes provide for a higher degree of accuracy in control of the helicopter, it is the basis for crew identification of a faulty system. i. Relief from the prohibition to takeoff with any inoperative instruments or equipment may be provided through a Minimum Equipment List (see 14_CFR Section 91.213 and 14 CFR Section_135.179, Inoperative Instruments and Equipment). In many cases, a helicopter configured for single pilot IFR may depart IFR with certain equipment inoperative, provided a crew of two pilots is used. Pilots are cautioned to ensure the pilot-in-command and second-in-command meet the requirements of 14_CFR Section 61.58, Pilot-in-Command Profi- ciency Check: Operation of Aircraft Requiring More Than One Pilot Flight Crewmember, and 14 CFR Section 61.55, Second-in-Command Qualifications, or 14 CFR Part_135, Operating Requirements: Commuter and On-Demand Operations, Subpart E, Flight Crewmember Requirements, and Subpart_G, Crewmember Testing Requirements, as appropriate. j. Experience has shown that modern AFCS/AP/ FD equipment installed in IFR helicopters can, in some cases, be very complex. This complexity requires the pilot(s) to obtain and maintain a high level of knowledge of system operation, limitations, failure indications and reversionary modes. In some cases, this may only be reliably accomplished through formal training. AIM 2/14/08 10-1-3 Helicopter IFR Operations 10-1-2. Helicopter Instrument Approaches a. Helicopters are capable of flying any published 14_CFR Part 97, Standard Instrument Approach Procedures (SIAPs), for which they are properly equipped, subject to the following limitations and conditions: 1. Helicopters flying conventional (non- Copter) SIAPs may reduce the visibility minima to not less than one half the published Category A landing visibility minima, or 1 /4 statute mile visibility/1200_RVR, whichever is greater unless the procedure is annotated with “Visibility Reduction by Helicopters NA.” This annotation means that there are penetrations of the final approach obstacle identification surface (OIS) and that the 14_CFR Section_97.3 visibility reduction rule does not apply and you must take precaution to avoid any obstacles in the visual segment. No reduction in MDA/DA is permitted. The helicopter may initiate the final approach segment at speeds up to the upper limit of the highest approach category authorized by the procedure, but must be slowed to no more than 90_KIAS at the missed approach point (MAP) in order to apply the visibility reduction. Pilots are cautioned that such a decelerating approach may make early identification of wind shear on the approach path difficult or impossible. If required, use the Inoperative Components and Visual Aids Table provided in the front cover of the U.S. Terminal Procedures Volume to derive the Category A minima before applying the 14 CFR Section 97.3(d-1) rule. 2. Helicopters flying Copter SIAPs may use the published minima, with no reductions allowed. The maximum airspeed is 90 KIAS on any segment of the approach or missed approach. 3. Helicopters flying GPS Copter SIAPs must limit airspeed to 90 KIAS or less when flying any segment of the procedure, except speeds must be limited to no more than 70 KIAS on the final and missed approach segments. Military GPS Copter SIAPs are limited to no more than 90 KIAS throughout the procedure. If annotated, holding may also be limited to no more than 70 KIAS. Use the published minima, no reductions allowed. NOTE- Obstruction clearance surfaces are based on the aircraft speed and have been designed on these approaches for 70_knots. If the helicopter is flown at higher speeds, it may fly outside of protected airspace. Some helicopters have a VMINI greater than 70 knots; therefore, they cannot meet the 70 knot limitation to conduct this type of procedure. Some helicopter autopilots, when used in the “go-around” mode, are programmed with a VYI greater than 70 knots, therefore when using the autopilot “go-around” mode, they cannot meet the 70 knot limitation to conduct this type of approach. It may be possible to use the autopilot for the missed approach in the other than the “go-around” mode and meet the 70 knot limitation to conduct this type of approach. When operating at speeds other than VYI or VY, performance data may not be available in the RFM to predict compliance with climb gradient requirements. Pilots may use observed performance in similar weight/altitude/temperature/speed conditions to evaluate the suitability of performance. Pilots are cautioned to monitor climb performance to ensure compliance with procedure requirements. 4. TBL 10-1-1 summarizes these require- ments. 5. Even with weather conditions reported at or above landing minima, some combinations of reduced cockpit cutoff angle, minimal approach/ runway lighting, and high MDA/DH coupled with a low visibility minima, the pilot may not be able to identify the required visual reference(s) during the approach, or those references may only be visible in a very small portion of the pilot's available field of view. Even if identified by the pilot, these visual references may not support normal maneuvering and normal rates of descent to landing. The effect of such a combination may be exacerbated by other conditions such as rain on the windshield, or incomplete windshield defogging coverage. 6. Pilots are cautioned to be prepared to execute a missed approach even though weather conditions may be reported at or above landing minima. NOTE- See paragraph 5-4-21, Missed Approach, for additional information on missed approach procedures. AIM 2/14/08 10-1-4 Helicopter IFR Operations TBL 10-1-1 Helicopter Use of Standard Instrument Approach Procedures Procedure Helicopter Visibility Minima Helicopter MDA/DA Maximum Speed Limitations Conventional (non-Copter) The greater of: one half the Category A visibility minima, 1 /4 statute mile visibility, or 1200 RVR As published for Category_A The helicopter may initiate the final approach segment at speeds up to the upper limit of the highest Approach Category authorized by the procedure, but must be slowed to no more than 90 KIAS at the MAP in order to apply the visibility reduction. Copter Procedure As published As published 90 KIAS when on a published route/track. GPS Copter Procedure As published As published 90 KIAS when on a published route or track, EXCEPT 70 KIAS when on the final approach or missed approach segment and, if annotated, in holding. Military procedures are limited to 90 KIAS for all segments. NOTE- Several factors effect the ability of the pilot to acquire and maintain the visual references specified in 14 CFR Section_91.175(c), even in cases where the flight visibility may be at the minimum derived by TBL 10-1-1. These factors include, but are not limited to: 1. Cockpit cutoff angle (the angle at which the cockpit or other airframe structure limits downward visibility below the horizon). 2. Combinations of high MDA/DH and low visibility minimum, such as a conventional nonprecision approach with a reduced helicopter visibility minima (per 14 CFR Section 97.3). 3. Type, configuration, and intensity of approach and runway lighting systems. 4. Type of obscuring phenomenon and/or windshield contamination. AIM 2/14/08 10-1-5 Helicopter IFR Operations 10-1-3. Helicopter Approach Procedures to VFR Heliports a. Helicopter approaches may be developed for heliports that do not meet the design standards for an IFR heliport. The majority of IFR approaches to VFR heliports are developed in support of helicopter emergency medical services (HEMS) operators. These approaches can be developed from conven- tional NAVAIDs or a RNAV system (including GPS). They are developed either as a Special Approach (pilot training is required for special procedures due to their unique characteristics) or a public approach (no special training required). These instrument procedures are developed as either an approach designed to a specific landing site, or an approach designed to a point-in-space. 1. Approach to a specific landing site. The approach is aligned to a missed approach point from which a landing can be accomplished with a maximum course change of 30 degrees. The visual segment from the MAP to the landing site is evaluated for obstacle hazards. These procedures are annotated: “PROCEED VISUALLY FROM (NAMED MAP) OR CONDUCT THE SPECIFIED MISSED APPROACH.” (a) This phrase requires the pilot to either acquire and maintain visual contact with the landing site at or prior to the MAP, or execute a missed approach. The visibility minimum is based on the distance from the MAP to the landing site, among other factors. (b) The pilot is required to maintain the published minimum visibility throughout the visual segment. (c) Similar to an approach to a runway, the missed approach segment protection is not provided between the MAP and the landing site, and obstacle or terrain avoidance from the MAP to the landing site is the responsibility of the pilot. (d) Upon reaching the MAP defined on the approach procedure, or as soon as practicable after reaching the MAP, the pilot advises ATC whether proceeding visually and canceling IFR or complying with the missed approach instructions. See para- graph_5-1-14, Canceling IFR Flight Plan. 2. Approach to a Point-in-Space (PinS). At locations where the MAP is located more than 2 SM from the landing site, or the path from the MAP to the landing site is populated with obstructions which require avoidance actions or requires turns greater than 30 degrees, a PinS procedure may be developed. These approaches are annotated “PROCEED VFR FROM (NAMED MAP) OR CONDUCT THE SPECIFIED MISSED APPROACH.” (a) These procedures require the pilot, at or prior to the MAP, to determine if the published minimum visibility, or the weather minimums required by the operating rule, or operations specifications (whichever is higher) is available to safely transition from IFR to VFR flight. If not, the pilot must execute a missed approach. For Part 135 operations, pilots may not begin the instrument approach unless the latest weather report indicates that the weather conditions are at or above the authorized IFR minimums or the VFR weather minimums (as required by the class of airspace, operating rule and/or Operations Specifications) whichever is higher. (b) Visual contact with the landing site is not required; however, the pilot must maintain the appropriate VFR weather minimums throughout the visual segment. The visibility is limited to no lower than that published in the procedure, until canceling IFR. (c) IFR obstruction clearance areas are not applied to the VFR segment between the MAP and the landing site. Obstacle or terrain avoidance from the MAP to the landing site is the responsibility of the pilot. (d) Upon reaching the MAP defined on the approach procedure, or as soon as practicable after reaching the MAP, the pilot advises ATC whether proceeding VFR and canceling IFR, or complying with the missed approach instructions. See para- graph_5-1-14, Canceling IFR Flight Plan. (e) If the visual segment penetrates Class B, C, or D airspace, pilots are responsible for obtaining a Special VFR clearance, when required. AIM 2/14/08 10-1-6 Helicopter IFR Operations 10-1-4. The Gulf of Mexico Grid System a. On October 8, 1998, the Southwest Region of the FAA, with assistance from the Helicopter Safety Advisory Conference (HSAC), implemented the world's first Instrument Flight Rules (IFR) Grid System in the Gulf of Mexico. This navigational route structure is completely independent of ground-based navigation aids (NAVAIDs) and was designed to facilitate helicopter IFR operations to offshore destinations. The Grid System is defined by over 300_offshore waypoints located 20 minutes apart (latitude and longitude). Flight plan routes are routinely defined by just 4 segments; departure point (lat/long), first en route grid waypoint, last en route grid waypoint prior to approach procedure, and destination point (lat/long). There are over 4,000_pos- sible offshore landing sites. Upon reaching the waypoint prior to the destination, the pilot may execute an Offshore Standard Approach Procedure (OSAP), a Helicopter En Route Descent Areas (HEDA) approach, or an Airborne Radar Approach (ARA). For more information on these helicopter instrument procedures, refer to FAA AC 90-80B, Approval of Offshore Standard Approach Proce- dures, Airborne Radar Approaches, and Helicopter En Route Descent Areas, on the FAA web site http://www.faa.gov under Advisory Circulars. The return flight plan is just the reverse with the requested stand-alone GPS approach contained in the remarks section. 1. The large number (over 300) of waypoints in the grid system makes it difficult to assign phonetically pronounceable names to the waypoints that would be meaningful to pilots and controllers. A unique naming system was adopted that enables pilots and controllers to derive the fix position from the name. The five-letter names are derived as follows: (a) The waypoints are divided into sets of 3_columns each. A three-letter identifier, identifying a geographical area or a NAVAID to the north, represents each set. (b) Each column in a set is named after its position, i.e., left (L), center (C), and right (R). (c) The rows of the grid are named alphabetically from north to south, starting with A for the northern most row. EXAMPLE- LCHRC would be pronounced “Lake Charles Romeo Charlie.” The waypoint is in the right-hand column of the Lake Charles VOR set, in row C (third south from the northern most row). 2. Since the grid system's implementation, IFR delays (frequently over 1 hour in length) for operations in this environment have been effectively eliminated. The comfort level of the pilots, knowing that they will be given a clearance quickly, plus the mileage savings in this near free-flight environment, is allowing the operators to carry less fuel. Less fuel means they can transport additional passengers, which is a substantial fiscal and operational benefit, considering the limited seating on board helicopters. 3. There are 3 requirements for operators to meet before filing IFR flight plans utilizing the grid: (a) The helicopter must be IFR certified and equipped with IFR certified TSO C-129 GPS navigational units. (b) The operator must obtain prior written approval from the appropriate Flight Standards District Office through a Certificate of Authorization or revision to their Operations Specifications, as appropriate. (c) The operator must be a signatory to the Houston ARTCC Letter of Agreement. 4. FAA/NACO publishes the grid system waypoints on the IFR Gulf of Mexico Vertical Flight Reference Chart. A commercial equivalent is also available. The chart is updated annually and is available from a FAA chart agent or FAA directly, web site address: http://www.naco.faa.gov. AIM 2/14/08 10-2-1 Special Operations Section 2. Special Operations 10-2-1. Offshore Helicopter Operations a. Introduction The offshore environment offers unique applications and challenges for helicopter pilots. The mission demands, the nature of oil and gas exploration and production facilities, and the flight environment (weather, terrain, obstacles, traffic), demand special practices, techniques and procedures not found in other flight operations. Several industry organizations have risen to the task of reducing risks_in offshore operations, including the Heli- copter_Safety Advisory Conference (HSAC) (http://www.hsac.org), and the Offshore Committee of the Helicopter Association International (HAI) (http://www.rotor.com). The following recommended practices for offshore helicopter operations are based on guidance developed by HSAC for use in the Gulf of Mexico, and provided here with their permission. While not regulatory, these recommended practices provide aviation and oil and gas industry operators with useful information in developing procedures to avoid certain hazards of offshore helicopter opera- tions. NOTE- Like all aviation practices, these recommended practices are under constant review. In addition to normal procedures for comments, suggested changes, or correc- tions to the AIM (contained in the Preface), any questions or feedback concerning these recommended procedures may also be directed to the HSAC through the feedback feature of the HSAC web site (http://www.hsac.org). b. Passenger Management on and about Heliport Facilities 1. Background. Several incidents involving offshore helicopter passengers have highlighted the potential for incidents and accidents on and about the heliport area. The following practices will minimize risks to passengers and others involved in heliport operations. 2. Recommended Practices (a) Heliport facilities should have a desig- nated and posted passenger waiting area which is clear of the heliport, heliport access points, and stairways. (b) Arriving passengers and cargo should be unloaded and cleared from the heliport and access route prior to loading departing passengers and cargo. (c) Where a flight crew consists of more than one pilot, one crewmember should supervise the unloading/loading process from outside the aircraft. (d) Where practical, a designated facility employee should assist with loading/unloading, etc. c. Crane-Helicopter Operational Procedures 1. Background. Historical experience has shown that catastrophic consequences can occur when industry safe practices for crane/helicopter operations are not observed. The following recom- mended practices are designed to minimize risks during crane and helicopter operations. 2. Recommended Practices (a) Personnel awareness (1) Crane operators and pilots should develop a mutual understanding and respect of the others' operational limitations and cooperate in the spirit of safety; (2) Pilots need to be aware that crane operators sometimes cannot release the load to cradle the crane boom, such as when attached to wire line lubricators or supporting diving bells; and (3) Crane operators need to be aware that helicopters require warm up before takeoff, a two-minute cool down before shutdown, and cannot circle for extended lengths of time because of fuel consumption. (b) It is recommended that when helicopters are approaching, maneuvering, taking off, or running on the heliport, cranes be shutdown and the operator leave the cab. Cranes not in use shall have their booms cradled, if feasible. If in use, the crane's boom(s) are to be pointed away from the heliport and the crane shutdown for helicopter operations. (c) Pilots will not approach, land on, takeoff, or have rotor blades turning on heliports of structures not complying with the above practice. AIM 2/14/08

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10-2-2 Special Operations (d) It is recommended that cranes on offshore platforms, rigs, vessels, or any other facility, which could interfere with helicopter operations (including approach/departure paths): (1) Be equipped with a red rotating beacon or red high intensity strobe light connected to the system powering the crane, indicating the crane is under power; (2) Be designed to allow the operator a maximum view of the helideck area and should be equipped with wide-angle mirrors to eliminate blind spots; and (3) Have their boom tips, headache balls, and hooks painted with high visibility international orange. d. Helicopter/Tanker Operations 1. Background. The interface of helicopters and tankers during shipboard helicopter operations is complex and may be hazardous unless appropriate procedures are coordinated among all parties. The following recommended practices are designed to minimize risks during helicopter/tanker operations: 2. Recommended Practices (a) Management, flight operations personnel, and pilots should be familiar with and apply the operating safety standards set forth in “Guide to Helicopter/Ship Operations”, International Chamber of Shipping, Third Edition, 5-89 (as amended), establishing operational guidelines/standards and safe practices sufficient to safeguard helicopter/tank- er operations. (b) Appropriate plans, approvals, and com- munications must be accomplished prior to reaching the vessel, allowing tanker crews sufficient time to perform required safety preparations and position crew members to receive or dispatch a helicopter safely. (c) Appropriate approvals and direct commu- nications with the bridge of the tanker must be maintained throughout all helicopter/tanker opera- tions. (d) Helicopter/tanker operations, including landings/departures, shall not be conducted until the helicopter pilot-in-command has received and acknowledged permission from the bridge of the tanker. (e) Helicopter/tanker operations shall not be conducted during product/cargo transfer. (f) Generally, permission will not be granted to land on tankers during mooring operations or while maneuvering alongside another tanker. e. Helideck/Heliport Operational Hazard Warning(s) Procedures 1. Background (a) A number of operational hazards can develop on or near offshore helidecks or onshore heliports that can be minimized through procedures for proper notification or visual warning to pilots. Examples of hazards include but are not limited to: (1) Perforating operations: subpara- graph_f. (2) H2S gas presence: subparagraph g. (3) Gas venting: subparagraph h; or, (4) Closed helidecks or heliports: subparagraph i (unspecified cause). (b) These and other operational hazards are currently minimized through timely dissemination of a written Notice to Airmen (NOTAM) for pilots by helicopter companies and operators. A NOTAM provides a written description of the hazard, time and duration of occurrence, and other pertinent informa- tion. ANY POTENTIAL HAZARD should be communicated to helicopter operators or company aviation departments as early as possible to allow the NOTAM to be activated. (c) To supplement the existing NOTAM procedure and further assist in reducing these hazards, a standardized visual signal(s) on the helideck/heliport will provide a positive indication to an approaching helicopter of the status of the landing area. Recommended Practice(s) have been developed to reinforce the NOTAM procedures and standardize visual signals. f. Drilling Rig Perforating Operations: Helideck/Heliport Operational Hazard Warning(s)/Procedure(s) 1. Background. A critical step in the oil well completion process is perforation, which involves the use of explosive charges in the drill pipe to open the pipe to oil or gas deposits. Explosive charges used in conjunction with perforation operations offshore can potentially be prematurely detonated by radio AIM 2/14/08 10-2-3 Special Operations transmissions, including those from helicopters. The following practices are recommended. 2. Recommended Practices (a) Personnel Conducting Perforating Operations. Whenever perforating operations are scheduled and operators are concerned that radio transmissions from helicopters in the vicinity may jeopardize the operation, personnel conducting perforating operations should take the following precautionary measures: (1) Notify company aviation departments, helicopter operators or bases, and nearby manned platforms of the pending perforation operation so the Notice to Airmen (NOTAM) system can be activated for the perforation operation and the temporary helideck closure. (2) Close the deck and make the radio warning clearly visible to passing pilots, install a temporary marking (described in subpara- graph_10-2-1i1(b)) with the words “NO RADIO” stenciled in red on the legs of the diagonals. The letters should be 24 inches high and 12 inches wide. (See FIG 10-2-1.) (3) The marker should be installed during the time that charges may be affected by radio transmissions. (b) Pilots (1) Pilots when operating within 1,000 feet of a known perforation operation or observing the white X with red “NO RADIO” warning indicating perforation operations are underway will avoid radio transmissions from or near the helideck (within 1,000_feet) and will not land on the deck if the X is present. In addition to communications radios, radio transmissions are also emitted by aircraft radar, transponders, radar altimeters, and DME equipment, and ELTs. (2) Whenever possible, make radio calls to the platform being approached or to the Flight Following Communications Center at least one mile out on approach. Ensure all communications are complete outside the 1,000 foot hazard distance. If no response is received, or if the platform is not radio equipped, further radio transmissions should not be made until visual contact with the deck indicates it is open for operation (no white “X”). g. Hydrogen Sulfide Gas Helideck/Heliport Operational Hazard Warning(s)/Procedures 1. Background. Hydrogen sulfide (H2S) gas: Hydrogen sulfide gas in higher concentrations (300-500 ppm) can cause loss of consciousness within a few seconds and presents a hazard to pilots on/near offshore helidecks. When operating in offshore areas that have been identified to have concentrations of hydrogen sulfide gas, the following practices are recommended. 2. Recommended Practices (a) Pilots (1) Ensure approved protective air packs are available for emergency use by the crew on the helicopter. (2) If shutdown on a helideck, request the supervisor in charge provide a briefing on location of protective equipment and safety procedures. (3) If while flying near a helideck and the visual red beacon alarm is observed or an unusually strong odor of “rotten eggs” is detected, immediately don the protective air pack, exit to an area upwind, and notify the suspected source field of the hazard. FIG 10-2-1 Closed Helideck Marking - No Radio AIM 2/14/08 10-2-4 Special Operations (b) Oil Field Supervisors (1) If presence of hydrogen sulfide is detected, a red rotating beacon or red high intensity strobe light adjacent to the primary helideck stairwell or wind indicator on the structure should be turned on to provide visual warning of hazard. If the beacon is to be located near the stairwell, the State of Louisiana “Offshore Heliport Design Guide” and FAA Advisory Circular AC 150/5390-2A, “Heliport Design Guide,” should be reviewed to ensure proper clearance on the helideck. (2) Notify nearby helicopter operators and bases of the hazard and advise when hazard is cleared. (3) Provide a safety briefing to include location of protective equipment to all arriving personnel. (4) Wind socks or indicator should be clearly visible to provide upwind indication for the pilot. h. Gas Venting Helideck/Heliport Operational Hazard Warning(s)/Procedures - Operations Near Gas Vent Booms 1. Background. Ignited flare booms can re- lease a large volume of natural gas and create a hot fire and intense heat with little time for the pilot to react. Likewise, unignited gas vents can release reasonably large volumes of methane gas under certain conditions. Thus, operations conducted very near unignited gas vents require precautions to prevent inadvertent ingestion of combustible gases by the helicopter engine(s). The following practices are recommended. 2. Pilots (a) Gas will drift upwards and downwind of the vent. Plan the approach and takeoff to observe and avoid the area downwind of the vent, remaining as far away as practicable from the open end of the vent boom. (b) Do not attempt to start or land on an offshore helideck when the deck is downwind of a gas vent unless properly trained personnel verify conditions are safe. 3. Oil Field Supervisors (a) During venting of large amounts of unignited raw gas, a red rotating beacon or red high intensity strobe light adjacent to the primary helideck stairwell or wind indicator should be turned on to provide visible warning of hazard. If the beacon is to be located near the stairwell, the State of Louisiana “Offshore Heliport Design Guide” and FAA Advisory Circular AC 150/5390-2A, Heliport Design Guide, should be reviewed to ensure proper clearance from the helideck. (b) Notify nearby helicopter operators and bases of the hazard for planned operations. (c) Wind socks or indicator should be clearly visible to provide upward indication for the pilot. i. Helideck/Heliport Operational Warn- ing(s)/Procedure(s) - Closed Helidecks or Heliports 1. Background. A white “X” marked diago- nally from corner to corner across a helideck or heliport touchdown area is the universally accepted visual indicator that the landing area is closed for safety of other reasons and that helicopter operations are not permitted. The following practices are recommended. (a) Permanent Closing. If a helideck or heliport is to be permanently closed, X diagonals of the same size and location as indicated above should be used, but the markings should be painted on the landing area. NOTE- White Decks: If a helideck is painted white, then international orange or yellow markings can be used for the temporary or permanent diagonals. (b) Temporary Closing. A temporary marker can be used for hazards of an interim nature. This marker could be made from vinyl or other durable material in the shape of a diagonal “X.” The marker should be white with legs at least 20 feet long and 3 feet in width. This marker is designed to be quickly secured and removed from the deck using grommets and rope ties. The duration, time, location, and nature of these temporary closings should be provided to and coordinated with company aviation departments, nearby helicopter bases, and helicopter operators supporting the area. These markers MUST be removed when the hazard no longer exists. (See FIG 10-2-2.) AIM 2/14/08 10-2-5 Special Operations FIG 10-2-2 Closed Helideck Marking j. Offshore (VFR) Operating Altitudes for Helicopters 1. Background. Mid-air collisions constitute a significant percentage of total fatal offshore helicopter accidents. A method of reducing this risk is the use of coordinated VFR cruising altitudes. To enhance safety through standardized vertical separa- tion of helicopters when flying in the offshore environment, it is recommended that helicopter operators flying in a particular area establish a cooperatively developed Standard Operating Proce- dure (SOP) for VFR operating altitudes. An example of such an SOP is contained in this example. 2. Recommended Practice Example (a) Field Operations. Without compromis- ing minimum safe operating altitudes, helicopters working within an offshore field “constituting a cluster” should use altitudes not to exceed 500 feet. (b) En Route Operations (1) Helicopters operating below 750' AGL should avoid transitioning through offshore fields. (2) Helicopters en route to and from offshore locations, below 3,000 feet, weather permitting, should use en route altitudes as outlined in TBL 10-2-1. TBL 10-2-1 Magnetic Heading Altitude 0_ to 179_ 750' 1750' 2750' 180_ 359_ 1250' 2250' (c) Area Agreements. See HSAC Area Agreement Maps for operating procedures for onshore high density traffic locations. NOTE- Pilots of helicopters operating VFR above 3,000 feet above the surface should refer to the current Federal Aviation Regulations (14 CFR Part 91), and paragraph_3-1-4, Basic VFR Weather Minimums, of the AIM. (d) Landing Lights. Aircraft landing lights should be on to enhance aircraft identification: (1) During takeoff and landings; (2) In congested helicopter or fixed wing traffic areas; (3) During reduced visibility; or, (4) Anytime safety could be enhanced. k. Offshore Helidecks/Landing Communica- tions 1. Background. To enhance safety, and pro- vide appropriate time to prepare for helicopter operations, the following is recommended when anticipating a landing on an offshore helideck. 2. Recommended Practices (a) Before landing on an offshore helideck, pilots are encouraged to establish communications with the company owning or operating the helideck if frequencies exist for that purpose. (b) When impracticable, or if frequencies do not exist, pilots or operations personnel should attempt to contact the company owning or operating the helideck by telephone. Contact should be made before the pilot departs home base/point of departure to advise of intentions and obtain landing permission if necessary. AIM 2/14/08 10-2-6 Special Operations NOTE- It is recommended that communications be established a minimum of 10 minutes prior to planned arrival time. This practice may be a requirement of some offshore owner/operators. NOTE1. See subparagraph 10-2-1d for Tanker Operations.

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2. Private use Heliport. Offshore heliports are privately owned/operated facilities and their use is limited to persons having prior authorization to utilize the facility. l. Two (2) Helicopter Operations on Offshore Helidecks 1. Background. Standardized procedures can enhance the safety of operating a second helicopter on an offshore helideck, enabling pilots to determine/maintain minimum operational parame- ters. Orientation of the parked helicopter on the helideck, wind and other factors may prohibit multi-helicopter operations. More conservative Rotor Diameter (RD) clearances may be required under differing condition, i.e., temperature, wet deck, wind (velocity/direction/gusts), obstacles, approach/ departure angles, etc. Operations are at the pilot's discretion. 2. Recommended Practice. Helideck size, structural weight capability, and type of main rotor on the parked and operating helicopter will aid in determining accessibility by a second helicopter. Pilots should determine that multi-helicopter deck operations are permitted by the helideck owner/ operator. 3. Recommended Criteria (a) Minimum one-third rotor diameter clearance ( 1 /3 RD). The landing helicopter main- tains a minimum 1 /3 RD clearance between the tips of its turning rotor and the closest part of a parked and secured helicopter (rotors stopped and tied down). (b) Three foot parking distance from deck edge (3'). Helicopters operating on an offshore helideck land or park the helicopter with a skid/wheel assembly no closer than 3 feet from helideck edge. (c) Tiedowns. Main rotors on all helicopters that are shut down be properly secured (tied down) to prevent the rotor blades from turning. (d) Medium (transport) and larger helicopters should not land on any offshore helideck where a light helicopter is parked unless the light helicopter is property secured to the helideck and has main rotor tied down. (e) Helideck owners/operators should ensure that the helideck has a serviceable anti-skid surface. 4. Weight and limitations markings on helideck. The helideck weight limitations should be displayed by markings visible to the pilot (see State of Louisiana “Offshore Heliport Design Guide” and FAA Advisory Circular AC 150/5390-2A, Heliport Design Guide). NOTE- Some offshore helideck owners/operators have restrictions on the number of helicopters allowed on a helideck. When helideck size permits, multiple (more than two) helicopter operations are permitted by some operators. m. Helicopter Rapid Refueling Procedures (HRR) 1. Background. Helicopter Rapid Refueling (HRR), engine(s)/rotors operating, can be conducted safely when utilizing trained personnel and observing safe practices. This recommended practice provides minimum guidance for HRR as outlined in National Fire Protection Association (NFPA) and industry practices. For detailed guidance, please refer to National Fire Protection Association (NFPA) Docu- ment 407, “Standard for Aircraft Fuel Servicing,” 1990 edition, including 1993 HRR Amendment. NOTE- Certain operators prohibit HRR, or “hot refueling,” or may have specific procedures for certain aircraft or refueling locations. See the General Operations Manual and/or Operations Specifications to determine the applicable procedures or limitations. 2. Recommended Practices (a) Only turbine-engine helicopters fueled with JET A or JET A-1 with fueling ports located below any engine exhausts may be fueled while an onboard engine(s) is (are) operating. (b) Helicopter fueling while an onboard engine(s) is (are) operating should only be conducted under the following conditions: (1) A properly certificated and current pilot is at the controls and a trained refueler attending the fuel nozzle during the entire fuel servicing process. The pilot monitors the fuel quantity and signals the refueler when quantity is reached. AIM 2/14/08 10-2-7 Special Operations (2) No electrical storms (thunderstorms) are present within 10 nautical miles. Lightning can travel great distances beyond the actual thunder- storm. (3) Passengers disembark the helicopter and move to a safe location prior to HRR operations. When the pilot-in-command deems it necessary for passenger safety that they remain onboard, passen- gers should be briefed on the evacuation route to follow to clear the area. (4) Passengers not board or disembark during HRR operations nor should cargo be loaded or unloaded. (5) Only designated personnel, trained in HRR operations should conduct HRR written authorization to include safe handling of the fuel and equipment. (See your Company Operations/Safety Manual for detailed instructions.) (6) All doors, windows, and access points allowing entry to the interior of the helicopter that are adjacent to or in the immediate vicinity of the fuel inlet ports kept closed during HRR operations. (7) Pilots insure that appropriate electrical/ electronic equipment is placed in standby-off position, to preclude the possibility of electrical discharge or other fire hazard, such as [i.e., weather radar is on standby and no radio transmissions are made (keying of the microphone/transmitter)]. Remember, in addition to communications radios, radio transmissions are also emitted by aircraft radar, transponders, radar altimeters, DME equipment, and ELTs.

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(8) Smoking be prohibited in and around the helicopter during all HRR operations. The HRR procedures are critical and present associated hazards requiring attention to detail regarding quality control, weather conditions, static electricity, bonding, and spill/fires potential. Any activity associated with rotors turning (i.e.;_refueling embarking/disembarking, loading/ unloading baggage/freight; etc.) personnel should only approach the aircraft when authorized to do so. Approach should be made via safe approach path/walkway or “arc”- remain clear of all rotors. NOTE1. Marine vessels, barges etc.: Vessel motion presents additional potential hazards to helicopter operations (blade flex, aircraft movement). 2. See National Fire Protection Association (NFPA) Document 407, “Standard for Aircraft Fuel Servic- ing” for specifics regarding non-HRR (routine refueling operations). 10-2-2. Helicopter Night VFR Operations

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a. Effect of Lighting on Seeing Conditions in Night VFR Helicopter Operations NOTE- This guidance was developed to support safe night VFR helicopter emergency medical services (HEMS) opera- tions. The principles of lighting and seeing conditions are useful in any night VFR operation. While ceiling and visibility significantly affect safety in night VFR operations, lighting conditions also have a profound effect on safety. Even in conditions in which visibility and ceiling are determined to be visual meteorological conditions, the ability to discern unlighted or low contrast objects and terrain at night may be compromised. The ability to discern these objects and terrain is the seeing condition, and is related to the amount of natural and man made lighting available, and the contrast, reflectivity, and texture of surface terrain and obstruction features. In order to conduct operations safely, seeing conditions must be accounted for in the planning and execution of night VFR operations. Night VFR seeing conditions can be described by identifying “high lighting conditions” and “low lighting conditions.” 1. High lighting conditions exist when one of two sets of conditions are present: (a) The sky cover is less than broken (less than 5/8 cloud cover), the time is between the local Moon rise and Moon set, and the lunar disk is at least 50% illuminated; or

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(b) The aircraft is operated over surface lighting which, at least, provides for the lighting of prominent obstacles, the identification of terrain features (shorelines, valleys, hills, mountains, slopes) and a horizontal reference by which the pilot may control the helicopter. For example, this surface lighting may be the result of: (1) Extensive cultural lighting (man-made, such as a built-up area of a city), AIM 2/14/08 10-2-8 Special Operations (2) Significant reflected cultural lighting (such as the illumination caused by the reflection of a major metropolitan area's lighting reflecting off a cloud ceiling), or (3) Limited cultural lighting combined with a high level of natural reflectivity of celestial illumination, such as that provided by a surface covered by snow or a desert surface. 2. Low lighting conditions are those that do not meet the high lighting conditions requirements. 3. Some areas may be considered a high lighting environment only in specific circumstances. For example, some surfaces, such as a forest with limited cultural lighting, normally have little reflectivity, requiring dependence on significant moonlight to achieve a high lighting condition. However, when that same forest is covered with snow, its reflectivity may support a high lighting condition based only on starlight. Similarly, a desolate area, with little cultural lighting, such as a desert, may have such inherent natural reflectivity that it may be considered a high lighting conditions area regardless of season, provided the cloud cover does not prevent starlight from being reflected from the surface. Other surfaces, such as areas of open water, may never have enough reflectivity or cultural lighting to ever be character- ized as a high lighting area.